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WHY,   WHEN,   and  How 


BY 


CLARENCE  M.  WEED,  D.  Sc. 

'1 

Professor  of  Zoology  and  Entomology,  New  Hampshire 
College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Mechanic  Arts 


ILLUSTRATED 


Jffmtrth 


NEW  YORK 
ORANGE  JUDO  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT  i8gi 
By  CLARENCE  M.  WEED 

COPYRIGHT  1903 
By  ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 


Spraying  has  now  come  to  be  an  established  part  of  the 
work  of  fruit-growing. — L.  H.  BAILEY. 

The  time  is  now  ripe  for  the  declaration  that  profitable 
apple  culture  demands  systematic  spraying. — FREDERICK  D. 
CHESTER. 

Spray!  Spray!  Spray!  Spray  for  insects  and  for  fun- 
gous diseases.  This  is  one  of  the  secrets  of  successful  fruit- 
growing.— DELAWARE  FARM  AND  HOME. 

/  believe  in  spraying,  for  I  have  tried  and  proven  it.  In 
many  portions  of  our  country  to-day  it  is  just  as  much  a 
necessity  as  is  under  draining,  or  fertilizing,  or  killing  potato- 
bugs. — MORTIMER  WHITEHEAD. 

The  spray  pump  might  well  be  adopted  as  the  emblem 
of  the  fruit  grower,  and  on  it  be  inscribed  that  old  legend: 
By  this  sign  we  conquer. — HON  E.  L.  SMITH,  Oregon. 

Out  of  thirty-six  tons  of  grapes  last  season  I  did  not  lose 
five  pounds  by  rot,  but  I  shall  spray,  rot  or  no  rot.  Spraying 
adds  greatly  to  the  health  of  the  vines,  and  consequently  to 
the  size  and  beauty  of  the  fruit. — JOHN  BURROUGHS. 

//  should  be  remembered  that  in  all  cases  success  is 
dependent  upon  the  exercise  of  proper  judgment  in  making 
applications.  Know  the  enemy  to  be  destroyed;  know  the 
remedies  that  arc  most  effective;  and,  finally,  apply,  them  at 
the  proper  season.  Be  prompt,  thorough  and  persistent. 
Knowledge  and  good  judgment  are  more  necessary  to  success 
than  any  definite  rules. — E.  G.  LODEMAN. 


256406 


Preface  to  Second  Edition 


This  little  manual  has  been  prepared  for  the 
purpose  of  aiding  owners  of  spraying  machines  to  use 
them  to  best  advantage.  The  practical  results  of  the 
most  recent  investigations  and  experiments  have  been 
embodied  in  it ;  and  technical  terms,  so  far  as  possible, 
have  been  excluded. 

The  development  of  the  practice  of  spraying  crops 
furnishes  a  striking  illustration  of  the  practical  results 
agriculture  may  derive  from  scientific  investigation 
and  accurate  experimentation.  Little  more  than  a 
decade  has  passed  since  Professor  A.  J.  Cook,  then 
of  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  began  his 
experiments  in  spraying  apples  to  prevent  the  injuries 
caused  by  the  Codling  Moth — experiments  which  first 
proved  to  the  horticultural  public  that  the  remedy  was 
safe  and  sure — and  to  his  enthusiastic  advocacy  of  the 
process  American  fruit-growers  are  largely  indebted 
for  the  introduction  of  spraying  machinery.  The 
success  which  followed  spraying  for  the  Codling  Moth 
naturally  led  to  experiments  in  spraying  for  other 
insects,  and  later  for  fungous  diseases ;  our  early 
knowledge  of  remedies  for  the  latter  being  largely  due 
to  the  efforts  of  Messrs  Scribner  and  Galloway,  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  estab- 
lishment of  the  state  experiment  stations  has  greatly 
aided  the  acquisition  and  diffusion  of  information  upon 
the  whole  subject. 

vii 


Viii  PREFACE    TO    SECOND    EDITION 

The  sources  of  those  illustrations  on  the  following 
pages  which  are  not  original  with  the  author,  are 
indicated  in  the  legends  below  the  pictures. 

C.  M.  W. 

- 

New  Hampshire  College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Mechanic  Arts. 
DURHAM,  March,  1895. 


Preface  to  Fourth  Edition 


In  the  revision  for  the  present  edition  an  attempt 
has  been  made  to  bring  this  little  book  up  to  the  best 
knowledge  and  practice  of  the  day.  I  am  under 
special  obligations  to  Professor  L.  R.  Jones  for  the 
revision  of  the  part  treating  of  potato  enemies,  to 
Professor  F.  A.  Waugh  for  reading  the  proof  through- 
out, and  to  Mr  W.  E.  Britton  for  the  loan  of  the 
electrotype  used  on  page  106.  Of  course  I  am  under 
obligations  also  to  the  great  number  of  workers  who 
have  made  possible  the  wonderful  advance  in  spraying 
operations  during  recent  years.  A  book  like  this  can 
only  hope  to  be  a  compilation  of  the  results  of  many 
minds,  and  I  have  not  hesitated  to  draw  freely  from 
many  sources,  giving  due  credit  so  far  as  practicable. 
To  all  who  have  thus  contributed  to  the  possible  use- 
fulness of  the  book  I  extend  cordial  thanks. 

C.  -M.  W. 
DURHAM,  N.  H.,   May,  1903. 


Contents 


Principles  of  Spraying 


PART  I 

SPRAYING  THE  LARGER  FRUITS 

Apple 57       Peach 73 

Plum 69       Pear 76 

Cherry 80 

PART  II 

SPRAYING  SMALL  FRUITS  AND  NUKSKKV  STOCK 

Strawberry 85       Grape 95 

Currant  and  Gooseberry..     90       Raspberry 97 

Nursery  Stock 99 

PART  III 

SPRAYING  SHADE-TREES,  ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS    AND 
FLOWERS 

Shade  Trees 107       Rose 114 

Flowers 115 

PART  IV 

SPRAYING  VEGETABLES,  FIELD-CROPS  AND  DOMESTIC 
ANIMALS 

Potato 119       Asparagus 126 

Cabbage 124       Grain  Crops 129 

Domestic  Animals 12 


SPRAYING    CROPS 


PRINCIPLES    OF    SPRAYING 

HABITS      OF      INSECTS — DEVELOPMENT      OF      PARASITIC 
GROWTH MIXTURES     AND     METHODS     EMPLOYED 

Growing  plants  are  liable  to  injury  from  two  classes 
of  organisms, — namely,  noxious  insects  and  parasitic 
fungi.  Although  these  tiny  foes  are  often  considered 
too  insignificant  to  merit  serious  attention,  they 
annually  destroy  about  $500,000,000  worth  of  crops 
in  the  United  States.  By  an  intelligent  use  of  the 
spraying  machine — a  simple  apparatus  by  which  cer- 
tain substances  that  destroy  insect  and  fungous  life 
may  be  distributed  over  the  surfaces  of  plants — a  large 
proportion  of  this  loss  may  be  prevented  at  compara- 
tively slight  expense.  The  object  of  this  little  manual 
is  to  indicate  why,  when,  and  how  to  spray,  to  get 
the  best  results. 

The  philosophy  of  spraying  will  be  better  under- 
stood if  one  has  a  general  knowledge  of  the  habits  and 
methods  of  development  of  the  insect  and  fungus 
pests  against  which  the  spraying  machine  is  used. 
Nearly  all  of  these  organisms  are  weaker  and  easier 
to  destroy  at  some  one  period  of  their  existence  than 
at  any  other :  consequently,  a  knowledge  of  their  habits 
and  history  is  often  necessary  to  success. 

SPRAYING     AGAINST     INSECTS 

The  insect  against  which  the  spraying  machine 
has  been  most  generally  used  in  the  northern  United 


SPRAYING     CROPS 


States'  'is '  tfie  ' Codling  ''Moth-* or  Apple  Worm — the 
little  white  worm  that  one  too  often  finds  near  the  core 
of  the  dessert  apple.  The  parent  of  this  little  pest  is  a 
small  chocolate-colored  moth  (represented  at  /  and 
g),  which  appears  in  spring  soon  after  the  blossoms 
have  fallen  and  deposits  its  eggs  in  various  places 
upon  the  young  apples  as  well  as  upon  the  adjacent 
leaves.  In  about  a  week  these  eggs  hatch  into 


Codling  Moth 

a,  injured  apple;    b,  calyx  where   young  larva   generally   enters;  e,  larva;  d, 
pupa;  *,  cocoon;  g,ft  moth;  h,  head  of  larva.     (After  Riley) 

young  larvae  which  often  nibble  a  little  of  the  green 
surface  of  the  leaf  or  the  fruit  before  they  crawl  into 
the  little  calyx  cup  at  the  outer  end  of  the  apple  to 
burrow  into  the  pulpy  part.  Some  of  them  enter  at 
other  places.  Once  inside  the  larva  continues 
feeding  as  the  apple  develops,  constantly  increasing 
in  size,  until,  at  the  end  of  three  or  four  weeks,  it  is 
about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  and  appears  as 
represented  in  e.  It  has  now  finished  its  caterpillar 


SPRAYING    AGAINST    INSECTS  3 

growth,  and,  leaving  the  apple,  it  finds  some  crevice 
in  the  rough  bark,  where  it  spins  a  slight  cocoon,  in 
which  it  changes  to  the  pupa  or  chrysalis  state. 
A  fortnight  later  it  emerges  from  the  cocoon  as  a 
full-fledged  moth,  like  the  one  which  laid  the  origi- 
nal egg.  Thus  the  curious  life-cycle  is  completed. 
There  are  generally  two  broods  of  the  worms  each 
season. 

By  means  of  the  spraying  machine  the  fruit- 
grower is  able  to  place  in  the  calyx  ends  of  the  young 
apples  a  few  particles  of  poison,  so  that  when  the 
newly-hatched  worm  nibbles  at  the  skin,  the  chances 
are  that  it  will  eat  one  of  these  particles,  and  thus 
cut  short  at  the  outset  its  own  career.  To  do  this  the 
fruit-grower  usually  mixes  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of 
Paris  green  or  some  similar  insecticide  with  a  barrel 
of  water,  and  then,  having  the  barrel  in  a  wagon,  he 
drives  along  the  rows  of  apple  trees  just  after  the 
blossoms  have  fallen  off,  and  sprays  them.  The  little 
particles  of  poison  are  thus  distributed  over  the  tree 
in  a  spray,  and  when  the  water  in  which  they  are 
suspended  evaporates,  they  are  left  high  and  dry  upon 
the  leaves  and  fruit,  where  they  remain  for  several 
weeks  a  menace  to  insect  enemies,  until  the  combined 
action  of  rain  and  dew,  wind  and  sunshine,  dissipates 
their  poisonous  properties.  The  spraying  is  most 
effective  if  done  just  after  the  petals  fall,  when  the 
blossom  end  of  the  apple  is  wide  open.  As  the  young 
fruit  enlarges,  the  parts  of  the  calyx  close  up,  holding 
the  poison  inside  so  it  is  ready  for  the  little  worms 
when  they  attempt  to  eat  their  way  to  the  core. 
Probably  many  of  them  also  get  some  of  the  poison 
when  they  take  their  first  meal  on  the  green  surface 
of  the.  leaf  or  fruit.  If  the  first  brood  of  worms  are 
thus  quite  generally  destroyed,  there  is  no  necessity, 
usually,  to  spray  for  the  second  brood;  because  their 


4  SPRAYING    CROPS 

would-be  parents  having  died  in  infancy,  the  worms 
of  the  second  brood  do  not  appear  upon  the  scene. 

Another  insect  against  which  the  spraying 
machine  is  often  used  is  the  Plum  Curculio.  This 
pest  has  been  for  many  ^ears  one  of  the  most  destruc- 
tive enemies  of  the  plum-grower,  and  is  the  cause  of 
the  worminess  and  premature  dropping  of  the  fruit, 
with  which  so  many  owners  of  plum  trees  are 
familiar.  The  adult  Curculio  is  a  small,  hard  beetle 
(shown  magnified  at  c),  which  appears  in  the  plum 


Plum  Curculio 

a,  larva;  3,  pupa;  ct  beetle,  magnified;  d,  plum,  showing  crescent  mark. 
(After  Riley) 

orchard  early  in  spring,  and  feeds  upon  the  foliage 
and  flowers  until  the  fruit  is  well  formed.  It  then 
attacks  the  young  plums,  gnawing  at  them  to  satisfy 
its  hunger,  and  cutting  crescent-shaped  marks  in  the 
skin  to  deposit  its  eggs  (d).  In  a  short  time  these 
eggs  hatch  into  little  grubs  that  feed  upon  the  pulp  of 
the  fruit,  gradually  working  toward  the  pit.  In  a  few 
weeks  they  become  full-grown  (a),  by  which  time 
the  infested  plums  have  generally  fallen  to  the 
ground.  The  larvae  then  leave  the  fruit,  and,  enter- 
ing the  soil  a  short  distance,  change  to  pupae  (b). 
A  little  while  later  they  again  change  and  come  forth 


SPRAYING    AGAINST     INSECTS  5 

as   perfect   beetles.     There   is   but   one   brood   in   the 
season. 

As  the  eggs  of  this  insect  are  deposited  beneath  the 
skin  of  the  fruit,  it  is  manifestly  impossible  to  reach 
the  larvae  by  spraying.  But  by  coating  the  young 
fruit  and  foliage  with  particles  of  poison  we  can  kill 
many  of  the  parent  beetles  before  they  insert  the 
eggs,  and  thus  part  of  the  plums  will  escape.  This  is 
not  a  perfect  remedy,  however,  except  perhaps  in 
large  orchards,  and  must  often  be  supplemented  by 
jarring  the  trees. 


b 

Canker  Worm 

^»  eggs>f>  larva;  g;  pupa;  a,  male  moth;  b,  female  moth.     (After  Riley) 

Besides  these  two  insects  affecting  the  fruit  of 
orchard  trees,  against  which  the  spraying  machine  is 
especially  used,  there  are  many  enemies  of  the  foliage 
which  are  open  to  destruction  by  similar  means.  One 
of  the  worst  of  these  pests  is  the  Canker  Worm, 
which  at  more  or  less  frequent  intervals  during  the 
last  century  has  scourged  both  orchard  and  shade 
trees  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
It  is  represented  in  its  different  stages  in  the  picture 
above.  The  worm  or  larva  hatches  from  masses  of 
small  cylindrical  eggs  (e)  deposited  upon  the  bark  of 
the  tree.  It  feeds  upon  the  soft  parts  of  the  leaves, 
causing  a  badly  infested  tree  to  appear  brown  and 


6  SPRAYING     CROPS 

seared,  as  if  scorched  by  fire.  These  worms  continue 
feeding  for  several  weeks  before  becoming  full 
grown ;  they  then  descend  to  the  ground,  burrow  into 
the  soil  a  short  distance,  and  spin  silken  cocoons, 
within  which  they  change  to  the  pupa  or  chrysalis 
state  and  later  emerge  as  moths.  The  two  sexes  of 
the  moths  differ  greatly:  the  male  (a)  has  large,  well- 
developed  wings,  while  the  female  (b)  is  wingless. 
The  latter  is  of  an  ash-gray  color.  On  emerging  from 
the  chrysalis,  she  crawls  to  the  base  of  the  tree,  and 
ascending  the  trunk,  deposits  eggs  on  the  twigs  or 
branches  of  the  tree. 

The  Canker  Worm,  with  nearly  all  other  leaf- 
eating  caterpillars,  falls  an  easy  victim  to  the  spraying 
machine. 

FEEDING     HABITS     OF     INSECTS 

Insects  take  their  food  in  two  ways :  some  bite 
and  others  suck.  The  three  species  mentioned  under 
the  last  heading  are  examples  of  those  insects  which 
take  their  food  by  biting,  piece  by  piece,  the  tissues 
of  leaf,  stem,  or  fruit  of  their  host-plant.  Because  of 
this  they  may  be  destroyed  by  placing  particles  of 
poison  upon  the  surface  of  the  plant.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  the  injurious  insects  have  such  biting 
mouth-parts ;  but  there  is  also  an  important  class 
which  have  instead  of  jaws  a  pointed  beak  that  they 
push  into  the  cells  of  the  plant,  and  suck  out  the  sap. 
Insects  of  this  kind  cannot  be  destroyed  by  coating 
the  food-plant  with  particles  of-  poison,  for  such  par- 
ticles will  not  enter  their  alimentary  system;  conse- 
quently, one  must  use  against  them  some  insecticide 
which  kills  by  contact,  either  affecting  the  general 
surface  or  reaching  the  interior  through  the  breathing 
tubes.  The  former  are  called  Contact  Poisons  and 
the  latter  Trachcal  Poisons.  Kerosene  is  the  most 


FUNGOUS     DISEASES  / 

important  of  the  contact  poisons  and  pyrethum  or 
insect  powder  is  a  good  example  of  a  tracheal  poison, 
although  the  various  vapor  insecticides,  like  carbon 
bisulphide  and  hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  also  belong  here. 

DEVELOPMENT     OF     PARASITIC     FUNGI 

Many  other  instances  of  the  usefulness  of  the 
spraying  machine  in  controlling  noxious  insects  will 
be  found  on  the  later  pages  of  this  little  book.  To 
illustrate  the  theory  of  its  use  against  the  fungus 
enemies  of  crops,  as  well  as  the  life  history  of  the 
parasitic  fungi  themselves,  we  may  instance  the 
Dozvny  Mildew,  which  causes  the  Brown  Rot  of 
grapes. 

The  Brown  Rot  of  grapes  is  a  fungous  disease — 
that  is,  it  is  a  diseased  condition  of  the  foliage  or  fruit 
due  to  the  presence  of  a  fungus.  This  fungus  is  a 
minute,  parasitic  plant  that  develops  at  the  expense  of 
the  tissues  of  the  grape,  thus  causing  blighting  of  the 
leaf  and  decay  of  the  fruit.  It  attacks  all  the  green 
parts  of  the  vine,  including  the  young  shoots,  as  well 
as  the  leaves  and  berries ;  and,  like  other  fungi,  repro- 
duces by  means  of  spores — minute  bodies  correspond- 
ing in  function  to  the  seeds  of  flowering  plants. 

When  one  of  these  spores  falls  upon  a  moist  leaf 
its  contents  divide  into  a  number  of  distinct  particles 
which  escape  through  an  opening  in  the  spore-wall. 
Each  of  these  particles  moves  about  in  the  drop  of 
water  on  the  leaf  for  a  few  minutes,  then  comes  to  a 
standstill  and  germinates  by  sending  out  a  little  tube — 
somewhat  as  a  kernel  of  corn  in  moist  soil  sends  out 
its  germinating  radicle — and  this  tube  penetrates  the 
epidermis  or  skin  of  the  leaf.  Once  inside,  the  tube 
continues  to  grow,  pushing  about  between  the  cells  of 
the  leaf,  and  forming  what  is  called  the  mycelium  or 
vegetative  portion  of  the  fungus,  which  may  be  likened 


8  SPRAYING     CROPS 

to  the  roots  of  the  higher  plants.  As  there  is  little 
nourishment  to  be  obtained  between  the  cells,  the 
mycelium  develops  minute  processes  which  push 
through  the  cell  walls  and  absorb  the  cell  contents.  A 
small  section  of  an  affected  leaf,  greatly  magnified, 
is  represented  in  the  accompanying  figure,  the  un- 
shaded double-walled  spaces  representing  the  leaf 
cells,  the  shaded  part  between  the  walls  the  mycelium 
of  the  fungus,  and  the  projections  marked  a,  a,  the 
processes  or  suckers  that  penetrate  the  cells. 

After  this  mycelium  has  developed  in  the  leaf  for 
some  time,  it  is  ready  to  produce  its  spores.     Conse- 


Section  of  Leaf  Showing  Mycelium  of  Fungus 

Magnified.     (After  Farlow) 

quently  it  sends  out  through  the  breathing  pores  or 
stomata  of  the  leaf  its  fruiting  branches.  These  bear 
upon  their  tips  small  oval  bodies  which  are  the  spores. 
Some  of  these  fruiting  branches  are  represented  mag- 
nified on  the  next  page.  The  "mildew"  visible  to  the 
naked  eye  is  composed  of  these  fruiting  branches  and 
their  spores.  It  only  develops  under  certain  atmos- 
pheric conditions ;  so  that  the  mycelium  may  exist  in 
the  affected  parts  of  the  vine  for  some  time  before  this 
outward  manifestation  of  its  presence  occurs.  Besides 
the  spores  above  described,  which  are  produced  during 
the  summer  season,  and  consequently  are  called  sum- 
mer spores,  there  is  developed  in  autumn  a  different 
class  of  spores,  by  which  the  fungus  passes  through 


FUNGOUS     DISEASES  9 

the  winter.     Hence,  these  latter  are  called  the  winter 
spores. 

It  is  evident  from  the  above  account  of  this 
fungus  parasite,  that  remedial  or  preventive  meas- 
ures are  useless  after  the  enemy  has  become  estab- 
lished within  the  tissues  of  the  plant.  But  its  ingress 


Fruiting  Branches 

Greatly  magnified 

may  be  prevented  by  coating  the  green  parts  of  the 
vine  with  some  substance  having  a  destructive  effect 
upon  fungus  spores.  The  salts  of  copper  have  such 
an  effect,  and  in  consequence  have  come  into  general 
use  as  fungicides. 

From  the  foregoing  illustrations  the  reader  will 
have  learned  that  spraying  is  simply  an  easy  and  prac- 
tical method  of  distributing  certain  substances  having 


IO  SPRAY  IXC,     CHOPS 

a  destructive  effect  upon  insect  and  fungus  life  over 
the  outer  surfaces  of  trees,  shrubs,  vines,  and  herba- 
ceous plants.  These  substances  are  usually  applied  in 
a  finely  powdered  condition,  and  the  tiny  particles 
stand  guard  over  the  plants,  killing  with  remorseless 
certainty  any  insect  or  fungus  pest  that  attempts  to 
pass  through  their  lines  to  reach  the  plant.  The  par- 
ticles themselves  do  not  enter  the  plant,  but  remain  on 
the  outside  until  driven  off  by  the  combined  action  of 
wind,  rain,  dew,  and  sunshine.  This  is  not  true,  how- 
ever, of  the  contact-killing  insecticides,  which  are 
applied  directly  to  the  offending  insects  and  do  not 
remain  on  the  plant  in  an  effective  condition. 

Substances  used  to  destroy  insects  are  called 
insecticides;  those  used  to  destroy  fungi  are  called 
fungicides. 

INSECTICIDES    USED    IN    SPRAYING 

The  insecticides  used  in  spraying  may  be  broadly 
divided  into  two  classes :  ( i )  internal  poisons,  or 
those  which  take  effect  by  being  eaten  along  with  the 
ordinary  food  of  the  insect;  and  (2)  external  irritants, 
or  those  which  act  from  the  outside, — penetrating  the 
breathing  pores,  or  causing  death  by  irritation  of  the 
skin.  The  most  important  insecticides  are  the  poisons. 
Of  these  the  most  popular  are  the  various  combina- 
tions of  arsenic. 

Paris  green  is  a  chemical  combination  of  arsenic 
and  copper,  containing  about  58  per  cent  of  arsenious 
acid;  about  31  per  cent  of  copper  oxide  and  10  per 
cent  of  acetic  acid.  Technically  it  is  called  copper 
aceto-arsenite.  It  is  almost  insoluble  in  water;  but 
there  is  often  a  small  percentage  of  it  soluble,  and 
to  prevent  the  injury  this  may  do  to  foliage  it  pays 
to  add  a  little  fresh  lime  water  (made  by  slaking  fresh 
lime  in  water)  to  the  spraying  mixture.  It  may  be 


INSECTICIDES  II 

used  in  spraying  potatoes,  apple  trees,  and  most  shade 
trees,  at  the  rate  of  four  ounces  to  50  gallons  of  water. 
On  stone  fruits,  use  half  this  strength,  unless  lime  is 
added,  although  in  the  case  of  peaches  great  care  must 
be  used  if  Paris  green  is  applied.  Arsenate  of  lead 
is  safer.  Paris  green  is  a  heavy  powder,  and  does 
not  stay  long  in  suspension ;  hence  it  must  be  kept 
constantly  stirred  to  prevent  its  settling  to  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel.  Buy  Paris  green  in  as  finely  powdered 
condition  as  possible,  and  get  a  reliable  brand. 
Paris  green  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  arsenious 
acid,  which  gives  a  larger  per  cent  of  soluble  arsenic 
than  should  be  present.  Gypsum  or  calcium  sulphate 
is  also  often  used  as  an  adulterant.  Most  experiment 
stations  are  able  to  give  the  names  of  reliable  brands 
of  Paris  green. 

Color  Tests  for  Paris  Green — Upon  this  subject 
Mr  A.  V.  Stubenrauch  says  in  a  bulletin  of  the  Illinois 
Experiment  Station :  "Perhaps  the  simplest  test  to 
determine  whether  a  green  has  been  extensively  adul- 
terated is  the  color  test.  Pure  Paris  green  has  a  bright 
green  color,  a  shade  or  two  lighter  than  emerald.  Any 
samples  which  have  a  dull  or  a  pale,  washed-out  ap- 
pearance should  at  once  be  discarded  without  further 
question.  By  placing  a  small  quantity  in,  say  a 
homeopathic  vial,  and  tapping  the  latter  gently  on  the 
bottom  or  side,  adulterants  can  be  made  to  separate 
from  the  green,  and  can  then  be  seen  as  white  streaks 
or  patches  against  the  glass  sides  of  the  vial.  The 
pure  green  remains  bright  green  against  the  glass. 
Tn  connection  with  the  color  test,  Professor  Wood- 
worth  of  the  California  Station  has  devised  the  fol- 
lowing simple  test,  which  can  be  made  by  anyone  and 
which  will  show  immediately  if  the  sample  is  worthy 
of  any  further  consideration :  Place  upon  a  clean  glass 
plate  a  small  quantity  of  green,  what  one  can  easily 


12  SPRAYING    CROPS 

pick  up  on  the  point  of  a  penknife ;  tilt  the  plate  at  a 
slight  angle  and  gently  tap  the  edge,  just  enough  to 
cause  the  green  to  flow  down  leaving  a  streak  across 
the  plate.  If  the  green  is  of  good  quality,  the  streak 
will  be  a  bright,  light  emerald  green ;  if  adulterated,  a 
whitish  or  a  sickly  dull  green.  Any  samples  which 
exhibit  the  latter  are  either  adulterated  or  of  low  grade 
and  as  such  are  not  worthy  of  further  consideration." 

Arsenate  of  Lead — This  poison  has  recently  come 
into  general  use  as  an  insecticide.  It  has  many  ad- 
vantages as  it  is  a  very  fine  insoluble  powder,  that 
remains  in  suspension  a  long  time  and  does  not  burn 
the  foliage  even  when  applied  at  the  rate  of  3  or 
more  pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water.  It  also  adheres 
to  the  foliage  better  than  Paris  green  and  may  be  seen 
upon  the  leaves  more  readily  so  that  the  thoroughness 
of  the  spraying  may  be  more  easily  determined.  On 
the  other  hand  it  is  rather  slow  in  its  action.  It  should 
be  bought  in  the  form  of  a  thick  paste.  "For  the 
garden  or  for  the  small  orchard,"  writes  Professor 
John  B.  Smith,  "this  arsenate  of  lead  in  paste  form 
is  the  most  convenient  and  reliable  arsenical  poison 
that  we  have.  There  is  no  danger  of  using  too  much 
of  it,  and  it  can  be  employed  on  plants  of  all  kinds. 
I  used  it  on  my  roses  to  destroy  the  slugs  and  applied 
it  on  all  other  plants  that  were  subject  to  caterpillar 
attack.  It  has  the  advantage  of  whitening  the  foliage 
somewhat,  so  that  its  presence  is  easily  recognizable, 
and  it  has  lasting  qualities  superior  to  any  of  the  other 
arsenical  poisons  known  to  me.  In  the  peach  orchard 
there  is  nothing  so  good  if  leaf -eating  insects  are  to  be 
combated."  The  forms  of  arsenate  of  lead  upon  the 
market  are  Bowker's  Disparene  and  Swift's  Arsenate 
of  Lead. 

London  purple  generally  contains  nearly  the  same 
percentage  of  arsenic  as  Paris  green ;  but  the  arsenic 


INSECTICIDES  13 

is  often  in  a  more  soluble  form,  and  consequently 
London  purple  is  more  likely  to  injure  foliage  than 
Paris  green,  unless  lime  is  added.  It  is  a  finer 
powder  than  the  green,  -and  remains  in  suspension  in 
water  longer.  It  is  also  cheaper.  Before  using,  the 
soluble  arsenic  should  be  made  insoluble  by  the  addi- 
tion of  lime  water.  One  of  the  best  ways  to  do  this  is 
to  add  three-fourths  of  a  pound  of  lime  to  a  pound  of 
London  purple,  and  thoroughly  mix  them  in  a  gallon 
of  hot  water,  allowing  the  mixture  to  stand  two  hours 
and  keeping  it  hot  during  this  time  if  it  can  be  con- 
veniently done.  In  this  way  the  soluble  arsenic  will 
be  rendered  insoluble,  and  the  London  purple  may  be 
used  at  the  rate  of  4  or  5  ounces  to  a  barrel  of  water. 
Or  the  London  purple  may  be  added  to  the  water  as 
usual,  and  about  2  gallons  of  fresh  milk  of  lime  (made 
by  slaking  lime  in  water)  strained  into  the  barrel. 
If  allowed  to  stand  an  hour,  all  the  soluble  arsenic  is 
more  likely  to  be  rendered  insoluble  than  if  used  at 
once.  After  London  purple  has  been  thus  treated 
with  lime  it  can  safely  be  applied  to  tender  foliage  at 
a  strength  of  4  ounces  to  50  gallons  of  water.  Both 
London  purple  and  Paris  green  may  be  added  to  the 
Bordeaux  mixture  (4  ounces  poison  to  50  gallons  mix- 
ture), as  described  more  fully  elsewhere,  and  then 
the  treatment  with  lime  is  not  necessary. 

Scheele's  Green  is  another  arsenical  insecticide 
recently  placed  on  the  market.  According  to  a  bulle- 
tin of  the  -United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
it  "is  similar  to  Paris  green  in  color,  and  differs  from 
it  only  in  lacking  acetic  acid ;  in  other  words,  it  is  a 
simple  arsenite  of  copper.  It  is  a  much  finer  powder 
than  Paris  green,  and  therefore  more  easily  kept  in 
suspension,  and  has  the  additional  advantage  of  cost- 
ing only  about  half  as  much  per  pound.  When  prop- 
erly washed  and  prepared  by  the  manufacturers  it  is 


14  SPRAYING     CROPS 

less  harmful  to  the  foliage  even  than  Paris  green,  is 
quicker  in  effect,  and  should  supplant  the  latter  as  an 
insecticide.  It  is  used  in  the  same  way  and  at  about 
the  same  strength  as  Paris  green." 

Hellebore  is  a  vegefeble  poison,  and  kills  both  by 
contact  and  by  being  eaten.  It  may  be  applied  in 
water,  i  ounce  to  3  gallons,  or  i  pound  to  a  barrel. 
It  is  especially  excellent  in  destroying  the  imported 
currant  worm. 

Pyrethrum,  or  Insect  Powder,  is  made  from  the 
powdered  flowers  of  plants  of  the  genus  Pyrethrum. 
The  greatest  obstacle  to  the  use  of  Pyrethrum  has 
been  the  difficulty  in  obtaining  the  pure,  fresh  article. 
After  long  exposure  to  the  air  it  loses  much  of  its 
insecticidal  value.  It  is  used  mainly  as  a  dry  powder 
or  in  water  (i  ounce  to  3  gallons)  ;  but  may  also  be 
used  in  the  form  of  a  tea,  or  a  decoction,  a  fume,  or 
an  alcoholic  extract  diluted. 

Arsenite  of  Lime — Persons  having  a  large  amount 
of  spraying  to  do  often  use  this  in  place  of  Paris 
green,  as  it  is  much  cheaper.  It  is  made  by  boiling 
for  15  minutes  or  more 

White   arsenic    2  pounds 

Salsoda     8  pounds 

Water  2  gallons 

After  the  arsenic  is  dissolved  this  makes  a  stock 
solution  which  may  be  used  at  the  rate  of  I  pint  to  a 
barrel  of  water,  adding  also  2  pounds  of  freshly  slaked 
lime.  The  chief  objection  to  this  is  in  the  danger  of 
having  white  arsenic  around  the  premises.  It  looks 
so  much  like  flour,  baking  powder  and  other  domestic 
powders  that  it  is  dangerous  to  the  family. 

Kerosene — Pure  kerosene  has  lately  come  into 
use  as  an  insecticide  for  scale  insects,  especially  the 
San  Jose  scale.  It  is  to  be  applied  only  to  dormant 


INSECTICIDES  15 

trees  in  winter,  and  must  be  used  with  care  and  dis- 
cretion in  order  not  to  kill  the  trees.  It  is  to  be 
sprayed  on  until  the  bark  is  thoroughly  moistened, 
but  spraying  should  cease  before  the  kerosene  begins 
to  run  down  the  branches.  The  Vermorel  nozzle  with 
one-twentieth-inch  aperture  is  recommended  for  this 
work.  Apparently  there  is  especial  danger  of  injury 
to  the  trees  in  the  case  of  the  peach. 

Kerowater  Sprays — During  the  last  few  years 
considerable  progress  has  been  made  in  the  making 
of  apparatus  for  applying  kerosene  in  mechanical 
mixture  with  water.  Essentially  this  consists  in 
having  the  kerosene  in  one  receptacle  and  the  water 
in  the  other  and  bringing  the  two  together  at  the 
nozzle  in  such  a  way  that  the  two  will  combine  in 
the  spray  applied.  In  much  of  the  apparatus  now 
upon  the  market,  the  two  liquids  enter  the  same  hose 
at  the  pump  so  that  there  is  an  opportunity  for  more 
or  less  separation  before  the  nozzle  is  reached,  a  fact 
which  leads  to  inequality  in  the  percentages  of  ker- 
osene in  the  spray  at  different  times.  The  longer  and 
larger  the  hose  the  greater  the  danger.  Consequently 
the  small  bucket  and  knapsack  kerosene  and  water 
machines  are  much  more  likely  to  give  satisfaction 
than  the  large  barrel  machines. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  kerosene  and  the  water 
should  reach  the  nozzle  through  separate  lines  of 
hose  so  that  there  will  be  no  opportunity  for  such 
inequalities  as  the  present  system  involves.  In  some 
of  the  best  types  of  barrel  sprayers  this  principle  is 
now  adopted. 

There  is  no  question  that  these  kerowater  sprays 
have  many  advantages,  and  are  very  useful  in  de- 
stroying many  sorts  of  insects. 

Kerosene  Emulsion — According  to  the  Riley- 
Hubbard  formula  in  general  use  this  is  prepared  by 


l6  SPRAYING    CROPS 

adding  2  gallons  of  kerosene  to  i  gallon  of  a  solution 
made  by  dissolving  l/2  pound  of  hard  soap  in  I 
gallon  of  boiling  water,  and  churning  the  mixture  by 
forcing  it  back  into  the  same  vessel  through  a  force 
pump  with  a  rather  sm^ll  nozzle  opening  throwing  a 
straight  stream,  until  the  whole  forms  a  creamy  mass, 
which  will  thicken  into  a  jelly-like  substance  on  cool- 
ing. The  soap  solution  should  be  hot  when  the 
kerosene  is  added,  but  of  course  must  not  be  near  a 
fire.  The  emulsion  thus  made  is  to  be  diluted  before 
using,  with  nine  or  ten  parts  of  water  to  one  part  of 
emulsion.  The  amount  of  dilution  varies  with  differ- 
ent insects.  Soft  water  or  rain  water  should  be  used 
in  diluting.  If  this  cannot  be  obtained  add  a  little 
lye  or  bicarbonate  of  soda.  For  use  against  scale 
insects  potash  whale  oil  soap  is  recommended. 

Crude  Petroleum — This  substance  has  been  used 
to  a  considerable  extent  for  winter  treatment  for 
the  San  Jose  scale.  It  is  sprayed  upon  the  bark  as 
recommended  for  pure  kerosene  and  seems  to  remain 
on  longer  in  effective  condition. 

Lime,  Salt  and  Sulphur  Wash — This  has  lately 
become  the  most  generally  recommended  insecticide 
for  use  against  the  San  Jose  scale.  According  to 
Professor  J.  B.  Smith  the  formula  generally  used  in 
New  Jersey  is : 

Stone   lime 50  pounds 

Flowers   of  sulphur 50  pounds 

Stock    salt 50  pounds 

Water     150  gallons 

"Slake  the  lime  with  hot  water,  enough  to  do  it 
thoroughly,  add  the  sulphur,  stir  well,  and  boil  for 
at  least  an  hour,  adding  water  as  necessary.  Then 
add  the  salt,  boil  at  least  fifteen  minutes  more,  and 
dilute  to  make  the  150  gallons,  In  boiling  .use  no 


INSECTICIDES  17 

more  water  than  necessary  to  make  a  fluid  mass. 
Strain  through  a  gunny  sack  and  apply  hot. 

"The  main  point  to  be  insisted  on  is  that  the 
mixture  be  thoroughly  boiled,  so  as  to  obtain  the 
complete  combination  of  the  sulphur  and  lime.  Hog- 
scalders  were  generally  used  last  winter,  but  in  at 
least  one  case  a  small  steam  boiler  proved  economical 
and  satisfactory.  Where  large  quantities  of  the  mix- 
ture are  to  be  prepared,  the  steam  boilers  will  prob- 
ably prove  most  convenient." 

For  Georgia,  Mr  W.  M.  Scott,  state  entomologist, 
gives  the  following  directions: 

"This  wash  may  be  prepared  by  combining  lime, 
salt  and  sulphur  in  several  different  proportions,  but 
the  following  appears  to  be  the  generally  accepted 
formula : 

Quicklime    30  pounds 

Salt    15  pounds 

Flowers   of   sulphur 20  pounds 

Water  to  make  60  gallons. 

"Slake  half  the  lime  carefully  and  place  it  in  a 
large  kettle  with  25  gallons  of  water;  grind  the 
sulphur  up  with  a  little  water,  breaking  the  lumps 
as  fine  as  possible  by  passing  through  a  sieve  and 
add  to  the  lime;  boil.  As  it  boils  the  liquid  will 
gradually  become  thinner  and  thinner,  the  lime  and 
sulphur  dissolving  simultaneously  to  form  a  deep 
orange-red  solution.  When  the  sulphur  has  appar- 
ently all  entered  into  solution,  which  may  take  two 
hours  or  more,  slake  the  remainder  of  the  lime,  add 
to  it  the  salt,  and  pour  the  two  into  the  lime  and 
sulphur  solution.  Boil  the  whole  for  from  half  an  hour 
to  an  hour  longer,  strain,  and  dilute  with  warm 
water  to  60  gallons.  Do  not  let  it  become  thoroughly 
cold,  but  spray  while  yet  warm. 


l8  SPRAYING    CROPS 

"The  principal  care  in  making  up  this  wash  is 
to  make  sure  that  the  sulphur  is  thoroughly  dissolved. 
Flowers  of  sulphur  is  apt  to  be  more  or  less  lumpy, 
and  these  lumps  are  very  difficult  of  solution.  The 
more  thoroughly  the  stllphur  is  ground  up  with  water 
before  being  boiled  with  the  lime,  the  less  time  it 
will  take  in  boiling. 

"An  iron  kettle  must  be  used  if  the  boiling  is  done 
directly  over  a  fire.  A  better  and  cheaper  way,  when- 
ever a  head  of  steam  is  available,  is  to  place  the  sul- 
phur, lime  and  salt  together  in  a  barrel  half  full  of 
water,  conduct  the  steam  through  a  pipe  to  the  bottom 
of  the  barrel  and  boil  for  two  or  three  hours,  with 
occasional  stirring,  to  make  sure  that  nothing  is  set- 
tling. If  a  boiler  is  convenient,  a  pipe  might  be  so 
arranged  as  to  conduct  steam  to  a  number  of  barrels 
at  once." 

Resin  Soap — This  substance  is  used  for  scale 
insects,  and  to  add  to  Bordeaux  mixture  for  asparagus 
rust.  The  soap  is  made  by  dissolving  7  pounds  sal- 
soda  (washing  soda)  in  5  gallons  of  boiling  water. 
Then  add  10  pounds  resin  and  boil  until  the  resin  is 
dissolved.  This  will  require  half  an  hour  or  more. 
The  result  will  be  a  yellow  soap  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  vessel  with  a  brownish  liquid  above.  The  latter 
is  to  be  poured  off,  and  the  soap  diluted  as  needed. 

Fish-oil  Soap — Professor  J.  B.  Smith  and  others 
report  excellent  results  in  the  use  of  this  substance 
against  plant-lice  and  similar  insects.  The  soap  is  on 
the  market  at  about  12  cents  a  pound,  but,  according 
to  Professor  Smith,  it  can  be  made  much  more  cheaply 
by  the  following  formula : 

Hirsh's  crystal  potash  lye i  pound 

Fish   oil    3  pints 

Soft    water 3  gallons 


INSECTICIDES  1C) 

Dissolve  the  lye  in  the  water,  heat  to  boiling,  and 
then  add  the  oil.  It  should  be  boiled  about  two 
hours,  and  when  done  water  can  be  added  to  make  up 
for  the  loss  by  evaporation.  For  use  as  an  insecticide 
it  is  made  into  a  dilute  suds  by  dissolving  i  pound  of 
soap  in  8  gallons  of  water.  It  is  less  liable  to  injure 
foliage  than  kerosene  emulsion. 

Lime  Spray  is  made  by  slaking  a  half-peck  or  a 
peck  of  fresh  lime  in  water,  and  pouring  into  a  barrel 
nearly  full  of  water,  straining  the  lumps  out  as  it 
enters  the  barrel.  By  means  of  this  and  the  spray 
pump,  trees  and  vines  may  be  literally  whitewashed. 
It  is  useful  in  mechanically  coating  plants  so  that 
flea-beetles,  and  perhaps  other  insects,  will  not 
molest  them. 

Tobacco  Decoction — This  is  made  by  boiling 
refuse  tobacco  stems  or  dust  in  water,  or  pouring 
boiling  water  over  them.  This  gives  a  concentrated 
liquid,  which  is  to  be  diluted  with  cold  water,  until 
there  are  two  gallons  of  water  for  each  pound  of 
tobacco  used.  It  is  a  good  remedy  for  plant-lice. 
A  stronger  formula,  recommended  by  Professor  M.  V. 
Slingerland,  is  to  steep  5  pounds  of  tobacco  stems  in 
3  gallons  of  water  for  3  hours ;  then  strain  and  dilute 
with  enough  water  to  make  7  gallons,  when  the 
decoction  is  ready  to  use. 

Whale-oil  Soap — Dissolve  in  water  at  the  rate  of 
2  ounces  soap  to  i  gallon  water.  This  is  good  to 
destroy  plant-lice,  rose  slugs,  etc.  Good's  potash  soap 
No  3  seems  to  be  the  best  whale-oil  soap  for  insec- 
ticidal  purposes. 

FUNGICIDES     USED     IN     SPRAYING 


The  principal  fungicides  used  in  spraying  are 
certain  salts  of  copper,  especially  the  sulphate  of 
copper  and  the  carbonate  of  copper.  These  substances 


2O  SPRAYING     CROPS 

were  first  experimented  with  on  a  large  scale  in 
France,  and  gave  such  satisfactory  results  that  they 
were  adopted  in  a  practical  way  by  many  vineyardists. 
In  America  they  have  been  used  for  this  purpose  only 
about  twenty  years ;  yCt,  thanks  to  numerous  inves- 
tigations and  experiments,  their  efficiency  is  well 
attested,  and  they  are  in  practical  use  over  a  large 
territory.  Their  principal  combinations  are  indicated 
below : 

Bordeaux  Mixture — This  fungicide  originated  in 
France,  and  has  become  one  the  leading  combina- 
tions of  copper  salts.  Since  its  introduction  into 
America  there  has  been  a  constant  tendency  to  dilute 
the  mixture  more  and  more.  The  results  from  the 
diluted  mixtures  have  been  apparently  as  good  as  from 
those  of  full  strength,  and  of  course  the  cost  has  been 
proportionately  lessened.  The  different  formulas  are 
indicated  below : 

Original  or  22-Gallon  Formula — Dissolve  6 
pounds  copper  sulphate  in  I  gallon  hot  water  in  an 
earthen  or  wooden  vessel.  In  another  vessel  slake  3 
pounds  fresh  lime  in  i  gallon  water.  Strain  the 
latter,  and  add  to  20  gallons  water.  Now  pour  in  the 
dissolved  copper  sulphate  and  mix  thoroughly.  Keep 
the  mixture  stirred  while  using.  This  strong  mixture 
is  now  seldom  used. 

Fifty-Gallon  Formula — In  1889,  while  at  the  Ohio 
Experiment  Station,  I  experimented  with  potato  blight 
by  diluting  this  mixture  a  little  more  than  half,  using 
6  pounds  copper  sulphate  and  4  pounds  lime  to  50 
gallons  water,  instead  of  22  gallons.  This  was  ap- 
plied to  a  number  of  plants  besides  potatoes,  and 
apparently  gave  as  good  results  as  undiluted  mix- 
tures. The  same  formula  was  also  successfully  used 
in  1890,  and  has  been  so  generally  adopted  since,  that 
it  is  now  the  standard  formula. 


FUNGICIDES  21 

The  most  complete  practical  directions  for  mak- 
ing the  Bordeaux  mixture  are  those  published  by 
Professor  B.  T.  Galloway,  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  No  38,  which  I 
quote  at  length : 

"It  has  been  found,"  writes  Mr  Galloway,  "that 
the  method  of  combining  the  ingredients  has  an 
important  bearing  on  both  the  chemical  composition 
and  physical  structure  of  the  mixture.  For  example, 
if  the  copper  sulphate  is  dissolved  in  a  small  quantity 
of  water  and  the  lime  milk  diluted  to  a  limited  extent 
only,  there  results,  when  these  materials  are  brought 
together,  a  thick  mixture,  having  strikingly  different 
characters  from  one  made  by  pouring  together  weak 
solutions  of  lime  and  copper  sulphate.  It  is  true, 
furthermore,  that  if  the  copper  sulphate  solution  and 
lime  milk  are  poured  together  while  the  latter  or  both 
are  warm,  different  effects  are  obtained  than  if 
both  solutions  are  cool  at  the  moment  of  mixing. 
Where  the  mixture  has  been  properly  made  there 
is  scarcely  any  settling  after  an  hour,  while  the 
improperly  made  mixture  has  settled  more  than  half. 

"Briefly,  the  best  results  have  been  obtained  from 
the  use  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture  made  in  accordance 
with  the  following  directions :  In  a  barrel  or  other 
suitable  vessel  place  25  gallons  of  water.  Weigh  out 
6  pounds  of  copper  sulphate,  then  tie  the  same  in  a 
piece  of  coarse  gunny  sack  and  suspend  it  just  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  water.  By  tying  the  bag  to  a  stick 
laid  across  the  top  of  the  barrel  no  further  attention 
will  be  required.  In  another  vessel  slake  4  pounds 
of  lime,  using  care  in  order  to  obtain  a  smooth  paste, 
free  from  grit  and  small  lumps.  To  accomplish  this 
it  is  best  to  place  the  lime  in  an  ordinary  water  pail 
and  add  only  a  small  quantity  of  water  at  first,  say 
a  quart  or  a  quart  and  a  half.  When  the  lime  begins 


22 


SPRAYING     CROPS 


to  crack  and  crumble  and  the  water  to  disappear  add 
another  quart  or  more,  exercising  care  that  the  lime 
at  no  time  gets  too  dry.  Toward  the  last  considerable 
water  will  be  required,  but  if  added  carefully  and 
slowly  a  perfectly  smooUi  paste  will  be  obtained,  pro- 
vided, of  course,  the  lime  is  of  good  quality.  When 
the  lime  is  slaked  add  sufficient  water  to  the  paste 


Improperly  and  Properly  Hade  Bordeaux  flixture 

After  standing  one  hour.     The  properly  made  mixture  has  just  begun  to  settle 

to  bring1  the  whole  up  to  25  gallons.  When  the  copper 
sulphate  is  entirely  dissolved  and  the  lime  is  cool,  pour 
the  lime  milk  and  copper  sulphate  solution  slowly 
together  into  a  barrel  holding  50  gallons.  The  milk 
of  lime  should  be  thoroughly  stirred  before  pouring. 
The  method  described  insures  good  mixing,  but  to 
complete  this  work  the  barrel  of  liquid  should  receive 
a  final  stirring,  for  at  least  three  minutes,  with  a  broad 
wooden  paddle.  The  copper  sulphate  solution  should 


FUNGICIDES  23 

be  poured  into  the  lime,  rather  than  the  lime  into  the 
copper  sulphate  solution. 

"It  is  now  necessary  to  determine  whether  the 
mixture  is  perfect — that  is,  if  it  will  be  safe  to  apply 
it  to  tender  foliage.  To  accomplish  this,  two  simple 
tests  may  be  used.  First  insert  the  blade  of  a  pen- 
knife in  the  mixture,  allowing  it  to  remain  there  for 
at  least  one  minute.  If  metallic  copper  forms  on  the 
blade,  or,  in  other  words,  if  the  polished  surface  of 


Making  Bordeaux  Mixture 

Pouring  together  the  lime  milk  and  copper  sulphate  solution 

the  steel  assumes  the  color  of  copper  plate,  the  mix- 
ture is  unsafe  and  more  lime  must  be  added.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  blade  of  the  knife  remains 
unchanged,  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  the  mixture  is 
as  perfect  as  it  can  be  made.  As  an  additional  test, 
however,  some  of  the  mixture  may  be  poured  into 
an  old  plate  or  saucer,  and  while  held  between  the 
eyes  and  the  light  the  breath  should  be  gently  blown 
upon  the  liquid  for  at  least  half  a  minute.  If  the 


24  SPRAYING    CROPS 

mixture  is  properly  made,  a  thin  pellicle,  looking  like 
oil  on  water,  will  begin  to  form  on  the  surface  of 
the  liquid.  If  no  pellicle  forms,  more  milk  of  lime 
should  be  added. 

"The  foregoing  directions  apply  to  cases  where 
small  quantities  of  the  mixture  are  needed  for  more 
or  less  immediate  use.  If  spraying,  is  to  be  done 
upon  a  large  scale,  it  will  be  found  much  more  con- 
venient and  economical  in  every  way  to  prepare  what 
are  known  as  stock  solutions  of  both  the  copper  and 


Testing  Bordeaux  Mixture 

The  saucer  or  plate  method  and  the  knife  method 

lime.  To  prepare  a  stock  solution  of  copper  sulphate, 
procure  a  barrel  holding  50  gallons.  Weigh  out  100 
pounds  of  copper  sulphate,  and  after  tying  it  in  a 
sack  suspend  it  so  that  it  will  hang  as  near  the  top 
of  the  barrel  as  possible.  Fill  the  barrel  with  water, 
and  in  two  or  three  days  the  copper  will  be  dissolved. 
Now  remove  the  sack  and  add  enough  water  to  bring 
the  solution  again  up  to  the  5o-gallon  mark,  previously 
made  on  the  barrel.  It  will  be  understood,  of  course, 


FUNGICIDES  25 

that  this  second  adding  of  water  is  merely  to  replace 
the  space  previously  occupied  by  the  sack  and  the 
crystals  of  copper  sulphate.  Each  gallon  of  the  solu- 
tion thus  made  will  contain  2  pounds  of  copper  sul- 
phate, and,  under  all  ordinary  conditions  of  tempera- 
ture, there  will  be  no  material  recrystallization,  so  that 
the  stock  preparation  may  be  kept  indefinitely. 

"Stock  lime  may  be  prepared-  in  much  the  same 
way  as  the  copper  sulphate  solution.  Procure  a  barrel 
holding  50  gallons,  making  a  mark  to  indicate  the  50- 
gallon  point.  Weigh  out  100  pounds  of  fresh  lime, 
place  it  in  the  barrel  and  slake  it.  When  slaked,  add 
sufficient  water  to  bring  the  whole  mass  up  to  50  gal- 
lons. Each  gallon  of  this  preparation  contains,  after 
thorough  stirring,  2  pounds  of  lime. 

"When  it  is  desired  to  make  Bordeaux  mixture 
of  the  5<D-gallon  formula  it  is  only  necessary  to  meas- 
ure out  3  gallons  of  the  stock  copper  solution,  and,  after 
thorough  stirring,  2  gallons  of  the  stock  lime ;  dilute 
each  to  25  gallons,  mix,  stir,  and  test  as  already  de- 
scribed. One  test  will  be  sufficient  in  this  case.  In 
other  words,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  test  each  lot  of 
Bordeaux  mixture  made  from  the  stock  preparations, 
provided  the  first  lot  is  perfect  and  no  change  is  made 
in  the  quantities  of  the  materials  used.  Special  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  lime  milk  is  stirred 
thoroughly  each  time  before  applying.  As  a  final  pre- 
caution it  will  be  well  to  keep  both  the  stock  copper 
sulphate  and  the  stock  lime  tightly  covered."  Care 
should  be  taken  that  there  is  always  some  excess 
of  lime. 

A  special  advantage  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture  is, 
that  arsenicals  may  be  added  to  it,  making  a  combined 
insecticide  and  fungicide.  Apparently  arsenate  of 
lead  is  the  most  satisfactory  for  this  purpose.  Added 
to  Bordeaux  mixture  at  the  rate  of  2  pounds  to  50 


26  SI'KAYJLXG     CHOI'S 

gallons  it  makes  very  effective  insecticide  and  renders 
the  mixture  more  adhesive. 

Care  should  be  taken  not  to  use  the  Bordeaux 
mixture  on  fruit  crops  too  late  in  the  season.  Traces 
of  it  remain  for  some  tir^e,  notwithstanding  numerous 
rains,  and  are  liable  to  cause  unnecessary  suspicions 
when  on  marketed  fruit.  When  a  fruit  crop  requires 
treatment  within  a  month  of  the  time  of  picking,  it  is 
better  to  substitute  some  fungicide  like  carbonate  of 
copper,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  even  these  combinations 
should  be  applied  so  near  the  time  of  the  fruit  harvest. 
With  nearly,  if  not  quite  all  our  fruit  diseases,  the 
treatment  should  begin  early  and  not  continue 
too  late. 

The  experience  of  orchardists  indicates  that  there 
is  danger  in  using  Bordeaux  mixture  in  which  there 
is  not  an  excess  of  lime,  as  it  causes  a  russeting  of 
apples  somewhat  similar  to  that  caused  by  late  frosts 
in  spring. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  traces  of  Bordeaux 
mixture  remain  upon  the  fruit,  even  when  a  consid- 
erable interval  elapses  between  the  last  application 
and  the  ripening  of  the  fruit.  Such  traces  may  be 
easily  removed  by  dipping  in  a  solution  made  by 
adding  2  gallons  cider  vinegar  to  10  gallons  water. 
A  good  way  is  to  have  three  tubs,  one  holding  the 
vinegar  mixture  and  the  other  two  pure  water.  Then 
place  the  grapes  or  other  fruit  in  wire  baskets  holding 
15  to  20  pounds,  dip  them  in  the  vinegar  tub  for 
five  minutes  and  then  rinse  in  the  two  tubs  of  clear 
water,  afterwards  spreading  the  fruit  on  frames  or 
shelves,  something  like  those  used  in  the  fruit  evap- 
orators. Grapes  can  be  treated  in  this  way  on  a 
large  scale  for  six  cents  a  hundred  pounds. 

Carbonate  of  Copper — This  is  commonly  used  in 
the  form  of  an  ammoniacal  solution  made  by  dis- 


FUNGICIDES  27 

solving  5  ounces  carbonate  of  copper  in  3  pints  of 
ammonia  and  then  adding  to  a  barrel  (50  gal- 
lons) of  water.  To  prevent  loss  from  evaporation  of 
ammonia,  the  dissolved  carbonate  should  be  added  to 
the  water  immediately  before  spraying.  It  is  a  simple 
fungicide,  easy  to  make  and  apply,  and  as  it  is  a 
clear  solution,  there  is  no  trouble  With  its  clogging 
nozzles.  It  has  been  successfully  used  to  prevent  apple 
scab  and  various  mildews. 

A  combination  of  carbonate  of  copper  and  car- 
bonate of  ammonia  recommended  by  Professor  F.  D. 
Chester  as  superior  to  the  above,  is  made  as  follows : 
"Mix  together  3  ounces  carbonate  of  copper  and  I 
pound  pulverized  carbonate  of  ammonia.  Dissolve  this 
mixture  in  2  quarts  hot  water  and  add  to  50  gallons 
water."  A  barrel  of  this  mixture  costs  12  cents. 

Professor  Chester  also  reports  good  results  from 
copper  carbonate  prepared  as  follows :  "Thoroughly 
mix  in  half  a  pail  of  water,  i  pound  of  carbonate  of 
copper,  to  which  is  added  3  ounces  of  common  glue 
dissolved  in  hot  water,  then  dilute  to  25  gallons."  It 
would  probably  be  better  to  dilute  to  50  gallons. 

Sulphate  of  Copper — Besides  its  use  in  combina- 
tion with  other  substances,  copper  sulphate  is  often 
applied  to  dormant  vines  and  trees  early  in  spring  to 
destroy  the  winter  spores  of  fungi.  For  this  purpose 
it  is  used  in  a  simple  solution  made  by  dissolving  2 
pounds  copper  sulphate  in  50  gallons  water. 

Extremely  dilute  solutions — one  part  of  copper 
sulphate  to  1000  parts  of  water — have  been  used  to 
advantage  in  greenhouses  to  check  such  diseases  as 
carnation  rust. 

Potassium  Sulphide — Dissolve  y2  ounce  of  potas- 
sium sulphide  (liver  of  sulphur)  in  I  gallon  of  hot 
water.  When  cold  apply  in  a  spray.  Used  to  prevent 
gooseberry  mildew  and  similar  diseases. 


28  SPRAYING    CROPS 

Soda  Hyposulphite — Dissolve  ^  ounce  or  i  ounce 
soda  hyposulphite  in  10  gallons  water.  This  is  espe- 
cially recommended  for  gooseberry  mildew. 

Lye  Solution — Professor  William  B.  Alwood 
recommends  a  solution  oi  8  cans  of  concentrated  lye 
in  50  gallons  water  for  spraying  on  trees  and  vines 
early  in  spring,  before  the  buds  are  started,  to  kill 
fungus  spores.  If  applied  after  buds  are  started 
much  damage  might  result. 

Formaldehyde-Glycerine  Mixture — Professor  F. 
D.  Chester  has  lately  used  with  success  the  follow- 
ing combination  in  treating  pear  tree  canker : 
Formaldehyde  (40  per  cent),  i  pint;  glycerine,  2 
pints;  water,  17  pints. 

Caution — Most  of  the  copper  compounds  cor- 
rode tin  and  iron.  Consequently,  in  preparing  them 
for  use,  earthen,  wooden  or  brass  vessels  should  be 
employed ;  and  in  applying  them  the  parts  of  the  pump 
which  come  in  contact  with  the  liquid  should  be  made 
of  brass. 

COMBINATIONS    OF    INSECTICIDES    AND    FUNGICIDES 

Soon  after  fungicides  came  into  prominence  in 
this  country,  the  writer  called  attention1  to  the  advan 
tages  of  so  combining  them  with  insecticides  that  both 
may  be  applied  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same 
mixture.  Before  then,  entomologists  had  worked  out 
remedies  for  insects,  and  botanists  remedies  for  plant 
diseases,  but  very  little  had  been  done  in  so  combining 
the  treatment  that  the  practical  man  might,  so  to 
speak,  "kill  two  birds  with  one  stone."  In  the  article 
referred  to  I  said :  "The  necessity  of  treatment  for 
both  classes  of  injuries  is  at  once  apparent  to  all  who 
have  experienced  the  serious  losses  due  to  these  agents. 
Obviously,  it  is  of  little  use  to  save  a  plum  crop  from 

lAgricultural  Science,  1889. 


COMBINING     SPRAYING     MIXTURES  2Q 

the  curculio,  if  it  is  to  be  destroyed  by  the  fungous 
disease  known  as  fruit  rot;  to  save  raspberries  from 
the  slug  if  they  are  to  be  ruined  by  anthracnose;  to 
save  the  grape  buds  from  the  flea  beetle  if  the  berries 
are  to  be  destroyed  by  black  rot ;  or  to  save  a  pear 
crop  from  the  ravages  of  the  codling  moth  and  curculio 
if  it  is  to  be  distorted  and  disfigured  by  the  scab ;  or, 
to  take  an  example  which  will  strike  home  to  a  large 
proportion  of  American  farmers,  it  is  scarcely  worth 
while  to  save  the  potatoes  from  the  Colorado  beetle  if 
they  are  to  be  ruined  by  more  serious  enemies — the 
potato  blights.  While  the  necessity  for  preventing,  so 
far  as  possible,  injuries  of  both  these  classes  of  organ- 
isms is  obvious,  it  is  almost  equally  evident  that  there 
will  be  a  great  loss  of  time  and  labor  if  each  is  treated 
separately.  For  instance,  the  farmer  who  sprays  his 
potatoes  with  the  arsenites  two  or  three  times  for  the 
beetles,  and  then  goes  over  them  again  with  solutions 
of  copper  sulphate  for  the  blight,  would  have  accom- 
plished the  same  end  in  half  the  time  by  mixing  the 
copper  sulphate  and  London  purple  or  Paris  green  in 
one  solution  and  applying  them  together.  -The  same 
is  true  of  the  treatment  of  apples,  pears,  plums,  and, 
in  fact,  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  crops  liable  to 
injury  by  both  insects  and  fungi." 

Since  the  above  was  written  a  great  many  exper- 
iments along  the  lines  indicated  have  been  made,  and 
we  now  have  a  number  of  satisfactory  combinations. 
Chief  among  these  are  the  following: 

Bordeaux  Mixture  and  Arsenites — Add  4  ounces 
Paris  green  to  50  gallons  of  Bordeaux  mixture. 
This  is  one  of  the  very  best  combined  insecticides  and 
fungicides.  It  may  be  used  safely  and  effectively  upon 
a  great  variety  of  crops — such  as  potatoes  for  Colorado 
beetles  and  blight,  apples  and  pears  for  insects  and 
scab,  and  plums  for  curculio  and  leaf  or  fruit  diseases. 


3<3  SPRAYING    CROPS 

The  remarks  on  page  26  concerning  late  applications 
of  the  Bordeaux  mixture  are  equally  applicable  to 
this  combination. 

As  already  stated  on  page  25,  the  ar senate  of 
lead  seems  even  better*  than  Paris  green.  Add  to 
Bordeaux  mixture  at  the  rate  of  2  pounds  to  50  gallons. 

Arsenitcs  and  Copper  Carbonate — The  Ohio 
Experiment  Station  recommends  the  following  com- 
bination :  Paris  green  2  ounces,  carbonate  of  copper 
2  ounces,  dissolve  in  3  pints  of  ammonia,  add  l/2 
pound  lime  and  I  barrel  of  water.  It  is  advised  that 
this  be  substituted  for  the  arsenite  and  Bordeaux  com- 
bination for  the  later  sprayings  of  apples,  pears, 
plums,  etc,  so  as  to  avoid  the  lime  coating  on  the  fruit. 

Care  must  be  taken  in  combining  the  arsenites 
with  other  fungicide  solutions,  as  one  is  liable  thus 
to  produce  a  compound  very  injurious  to  foliage. 
Paris  green  or  London  purple  added  to  simple  solu- 
tions of  copper  sulphate,  or  to  ammonia  compounds 
without  lime,  injures  foliage  vastly  more  than  in 
simple  water  mixture. 

COST    OF    SPRAYING    MATERIALS 

The  average  retail  and  wholesale  prices  of  the 
various  materials  used  in  the  spraying  mixtures  above 
described  are  approximately  indicated  in  the  following 
table : 

WHOLESALE          RETAIL 

Per  lb  Per  Ib 

Ammonia    (22   degrees   Baume) $o  07  $o  25 

Carbonate    of   copper    (precipitated) 35  60 

Carbonate    of    ammonia 12  30 

London    purple 06-07  10-15 

Paris   green    15  25 

Pyrethrum     22-40  40-70 

Soda   hyposulphite    06  15 

Salsoda    oi/4  05 

Sulphate    of   copper    (granulated) 05-07  10-15 

White   hellebore    12  25 

Whale-oil   soap    08-10  15-20 


HARMLESS     TO     FRUIT  3! 

PREJUDICE  AGAINST    SPRAYING 

It  is  quite  natural  that  when  most  people  first 
learn  that  the  fruit  they  eat  has  at  some  time  in  its 
history  been  sprayed  with  poison  they  should  object  on 
hygienic  grounds.  Both  in  Europe  and  America  the 
development  of  the  practice  of  spraying  has  been 
accompanied  by  occasional  scares,  the  last  one  on  this 
side  of  the  water  occurring  in  September,  1881,  when 
the  people  of  New  York,  Boston  and  other  eastern 
cities  were  agitated  by  an  exaggerated  "grape  scare," 
due  to  the  finding  of  particles  of  Bordeaux  mixture  on 
some  of  the  grapes  in  the  New  York  market.  But 
when  the  spraying,  either  with  the  insecticides  or 
fungicides  now  commonly  in  use,  is  done  with  proper 
reference  to  the  time,  methods,  and  conditions  of  treat- 
ment, there  is  no  danger  to  the  consumer.  Both  prac- 
tical experience  and  chemical  tests  have  demonstrated 
that  apples  sprayed  early  in  the  season  with  Paris 
green  or  London  purple  retain  none  of  the  poison  at 
the  time  of  ripening.  The  most  recent  demonstration 
of  this  appears  in  the  last  report  of  the  experimental 
farms  of  Canada.  A  peck  of  Rhode  Island  Greening 
apples  that  had  been  sprayed  twice  with  Paris  green 
(i  pound  to  200  gallons  of  water)  were  care- 
fully gathered,  without  rubbing,  and  tested  for 
arsenic.  "The  process  to  which  they  were  submitted 
is  one  that  affords  extremely  accurate  results,  and  is 
considered  the  most  delicate  of  all  for  the  detection  of 
arsenic.  It  is  capable  of  revealing  the  presence  of  one- 
fifty-thousandth  part  of  a  grain  of  arsenic.  If  twenty- 
three  thousand  bushels  of  apples  contained  two  and  a 
half  grains  of  arsenic,  the  minimum  fatal  dose  for  an 
adult,  the  poison  could  have  been  detected  by  this 
method."  Notwithstanding  the  most  careful  analysis 
no  traces  of  poison  were  found ;  and  in  conclusion,  the 


32  SPRAYING     CROPS 

chemist  states:  "I  am  of  the  opinion  that  further 
experiments  of  this  nature  would  only  serve  to  corrob- 
orate this  negative  result,  and  to  prove  that  there  are 
no  grounds  on  which  to  base  a  suspicion  that  our 
sprayed  apples  are  poisonous.  The  insoluble  character 
of  this  poison  precluding  its  assimilation  by  the  apple, 
if  such  were  possible,  the  infinitesimal  part  of  Paris 
green  that  can  remain  on  the  apple,  the  frequent  rains 
subsequent  to  the  spraying, — all  go  to  substantiate 
the  argument  that  there  is  not  the  slightest  danger  of 
poisoning  in  using  sprayed  apples." 

There  is  abundant  evidence  of  a  similar  nature 
concerning  the  use  of  copper  salts  on  grapes.  In  France, 
where  a  large  proportion  of  the  grape  crop  is  converted 
into  wine,  elaborate  investigations  have  shown  that 
practically  none  of  the  copper  salts  are  present  in  wine 
from  sprayed  vineyards.  Professor  B.  Fallot,  of  the 
School  of  Agriculture  of  Montpellier,  in  recording  the 
results  of  one  of  these  investigations,  says :  "The 
figures  obtained  have  proved  once  more  that  wines, 
after  the  grapes  have  received  numerous  treatments 
with  large  quantities  of  salts  of  copper,  contain 
scarcely  a  trace  of  this  substance,  and  are  entirely 
harmless." 

SPRAYING     APPARATUS 

The  chief  requisites  of  a  good  spraying  machine 
are  that  it  be  durable,  easily  worked,  not  too  expensive 
for  the  purpose  desired,  that  it  throw  a  fine  spray  and 
have  a  good-sized  cylinder,  and  that  the  reservoir 
holding  the  liquid  be  large  enough  for  the  purpose 
intended.  For  fungicides  the  parts  touching  the  liquid 
should  be  made  of  brass.  Although  twenty  years  ago 
there  was  scarcely  an  implement  for  this  purpose  upon 
the  market,  there  are  scores  of  them  to-day,  and 
several  manufacturers  handle  them  exclusively.  They 


APPARATUS  33 

may  be  had  in  all  shapes,  styles,  and  sizes,  from  the 
small  hand-spray  pump  to  be  used  with  a  bucket,  and 
costing  a  dollar  or  two,  up  to  the  large  power 
machines  costing  fifty  tihies  as  much. 

There  are  four  general  styles  of  spraying 
machines  upon  the  market.  First,  we  have  the  small 
bucket  pumps  that  serve  a  useful  purpose  where 
only  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  spraying 


Bucket  Pump 

is  to  be  done ;  then  come  the  knapsack  sprayers,  one  of 
which  is  illustrated  on  page  34,  which  are  especially 
useful  in  spraying  small  vineyards  and  crops  where  a 
horse  cannot  well  be  driven ;  third,  we  have  what  may 
be  called  the  barrel  class  of  sprayers,  being  good-sized 
pumps  to  be  attached  to  barrels  mounted  in  various 
ways ;  and,  finally,  there  are  the  large  machines  work- 
ing either  by  engine  or  horsepower.  For  the  general 
purposes  of  the  average  farmer  or  fruit-grower  the 
barrel  machines  are  much  the  most  useful.  They  are 
also  of  moderate  cost,  ranging  from  $8  to  $16.  They 


34  SPRAYING     CROPS 

can  be  used  in  spraying  all  sorts  of  crops,  and  may 
well  be  mounted  on  separate  wheels,  as  in  the  Chester 
sprayer  shown  herewith,  or  the  barrel  may  be  placed 
in  a  wagon  when  in  use. 

A  cheap  and  efficient  homemade  spraying  cart, 
designed  by  Professor  F.  D.  Chester,  is  illustrated 
on  page  35.  According  to  Professor  Chester :  "It  can 
be  made  by  any  wheelwright,  and  consists  of  a  truck 
mounted  upon  a  pair  of  carriage  wheels.  Upon  this 


The  Knapsack  Sprayer 

(Alter  Bailey) 

is  placed  a  barrel  holding  50  gallons,  held  in  place 
by  a  strap,  which  surrounds  the  same  and  which  is 
tied  in  front  at  either  trace.  The  barrel  has  a  tight- 
fitting  cover,  firmly  strapped  in  place ;  upon  this  is 
seated  the  pump.  In  the  large  cover  is  an  opening, 
covered  by  a  lid  for  filling.  Any  good  force-pump 
can  be  used  upon  the  barrel,  but  it  is  important  that 
it  should  be  good,  and  the  cheapest  are  in  the  long 
run  the  dearest.  The  cheaper  iron  pumps  are  excel- 
lent at  first,  but  will  soon  corrode  where  caustic 


APPARATUS 


35 


fungicides  are  used,  even  with  the  best  of  care.  All 
metallic  parts  that  have  contact  with  the  fungicides 
should  be  of  brass.  The  pump  should  have  a  double 
discharge,  one  for  the  spray  and  another  to  return  a 
portion  of  the  fluid  back  to  the  barrel  to  keep  the 
same  agitated."  The  pump  should  have  a  hose 
attached,  15  to  20  feet  long,  with  a  good  spray-nozzle 
at  the  end. 


A  Handy  Outfit 

(After  Chester) 


For  work  in  the  nursery  as  well  as  many  other 
places  an  excellent  spraying  outfit  "can  be  made  by 
firmly  fastening  a  barrel,  end  up,  on  a  sled  made  of 
heavy  durable  timber.  Mount  upon  the  barrel  a  good 
strong,  double-acting  force-pump  provided  with  two- 
hose  attachments,  to  each  end  of  which  fasten  25  feet 
of  y2-mch  hose.  To  the  end  of  each  hose  attach  a 
Vermorel  nozzle ;  then  with  the  necessary  gearing  for 
hitching  the  horse,  the  outfit  is  complete.  For  oper- 
ating the  machine  two  men  and  a  horse  are  required. 
One  man  does  the  pumping  and  attends  to  the  horse, 


30  SPRAYING    CROPS 

while  the  other  walks  behind  and  directs  the  spray 
over  two  rows  at  a  time."1 

A  good  outfit  for  use  in  the  vineyard,  recom- 
mended by  Professor  Bailey,  is  illustrated  below. 
A  barrel  with  pump  is  mounted  crosswise  on  the 
wagon,  "and  the  driver  rides  and  pumps.  Another 
man  walks  behind  and  throws  the  spray  up  under  the 
vines  and  on  to  all  the  clusters  by  means  of  a  Ver- 


A  Vineyard  Outfit 

(After  Bailey) 

morel  nozzle  attached  to  a  half-inch  gas  pipe.  This 
gas  pipe  has  somewhat  the  form  of  a  slim  letter  S, 
the  nozzle  being  attached  to  one  terminal  crook,  the 
other  crook  resting  over  the  man's  left  arm.  The 
hose  is  attached  near  the  shoulder.  The  pipe  is  so 
long  that  the  operator  is  not  obliged  to  stoop,  and  he 
can  direct  the  spray  in  any  direction,  while  the 
apparatus  hangs  easily  upon  the  arm.  A  globe  valve 

1  Galloway. 


APPARATUS 


37 


just  below  the  arm  enables  the  operator  to  shut  off 
the  stream  at  will." 

A  handy,  homemade,  wheelbarrow  spraying  out- 
fit, gotten  up  by  Professor  Bailey,  is  useful  in  garden 
work,  especially  in  spraying  small  bushes.  A  Cyclone, 
Vermorel,  or  Bordeaux  nozzle  is  used  to  underspray 
the  foliage. 


An  Orchard  Outfit 

(From  Delaware  Experiment  Station) 

A  plan  for  a  desirable  spraying  outfit  suggested 
by  the  experience  of  Delaware  orchardists  is  shown 
above.  After  much  experience  Mr  T.  S.  Derby 
of  Woodside,  Delaware,  says  that  the  "essentials 
for  economy  in  time  and  labor,  and  for  efficiency  in 


3  SPRAYING     CROPS 

orchard  spraying,  arc,  first,  an  elevated  platform  at 
least  12  feet  from  the  ground,  so  that  the  spraying 
is  largely  down  hill ;  second,  two  center  uprights  to 
support  the  platform,  instead  of  four  corner  uprights, 
in  order  to  allow  the  branches  to  sweep  in  under  the 
platform,  without  breaking  them  or  tearing  off  the  fruit 
spurs ;  third,  a  low  center  of  gravity,  brought  about  by 
setting  the  bottom  of  the  wagon  directly  on  the  axles ; 


Pole  Attachment  The  Bordeaux  Nozzle 

fourth,  a  form  of  extension  or  goose-neck  reach  to 
allow  the  front  wheels  to  turn  short ;  fifth,  wheels 
with  at  least  4-inch  tires,  and  of  ordinary  height ;  sixth, 
a  tank  to  hold  200  gallons." 

Nozzles — The  nozzle  forms  an  important  part  of 
the  spraying  outfit.     There  are  many  varieties  of  these 


Spray  Pipe  Extension 

upon  the  market ;  some  of  them  are  better  adapted  to 
certain  kinds  of  work  than  others,  so  that  it  pays  to 
have  several  forms  on  hand  where  there  is  a  variety 
of  spraying  to  be  done.  Some  of  the  best  forms  arc 
the  Vermorel,  Bordeaux,  Climax,  Cyclone,  Graduating 
Spray,  Deming,  Eureka,  and  McGowan.  For  spray- 
ing large  trees,  some  method  of  raising  the  nozzle 
nearly  to  the  top  is  generally  necessary.  Formerly 
the  commonest  way  of  doing  this  was  to  fastcn^the 


APPARATUS  39 

nozzle  and  hose  to  a  long  pole,  but  a  better  way  is  to 
use  a  half -inch  gas  pipe  or  a  brass  tube,  12  or  14  feet 
long,  attaching  the  hose  at  one  end  and  the  nozzle 
at  the  other,  or  one  of  the  bamboo  extensions  man- 
ufactured by  some  spraying  firms.  One  can  also  get 
a  handy  arrangement  for  underspraying  low  bushes, 
one  form  of  which  is  shown  in  the  illustration 
below. 

Agitators  for  Spraying  Mixtures — With  most 
poisons  held  in  suspension  in  water  some  form  of 
agitator  is  needed  to  keep  the  material  from  settling 
to  the  bottom.  "The  agitators  now  in  use,"  writes  Mr 
A.  V.  Stubenrauch,  "are  far  from  perfect  or  satis- 


Underspraying  Attachment 

factory,  especially  upon  long  flat  tanks ;  and  unless 
they  are  continually  watched  unequal  dissemination 
is  likely  to  result.  It  is  not  to  be  forgotten  that  the 
liquid  must  be  kept  in  motion  throughout  the  tank. 
It  is  not  alone  necessary  that  a  current  be  created 
near  or  around  the  opening  into  the  pump.  For  this 
reason  the  whirling  paddle  is  perhaps  the  best,  espe- 
cially if  constructed  with  tilted  blades,  something  like 
a  screw  propeller.  It  is  a  common  practice  nowadays 
to  attach  a  paddle  to  the  pump  handle,  so  that  the 
agitation  may  be  maintained  with  every  stroke  of  the 
operator.  At  first  sight  this  seems  to  be  a  good  plan, 
but  it  is,  really,  a  mistake.  If  the  paddle  is  a  satis- 
factory one,  the  labor  to  keep  it  going  will  be  far  too 
great  when  added  to  that  of  pumping,  and,  in  conse- 
quence, the  one  will  interfere  with  the  other.  Besides, 


4O  SPRAYING    CROPS 

a  violent  or  quick  motion  is  necessary  for  thorough 
agitation,  while  for  pumping,  a  regular,  steady  stroke 
is  the  best.  Therefore  it  is  best  not  to  attempt  to 
couple  the  two  motions. 

"Paris  green,  when  "used  alone,  is,  perhaps,  the 
only  material  which  requires  continual  agitation;  and 
that,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  is  a  serious  objec- 
tion to  its  use,  now  that  lighter-grained  poisons  have 
been  found  which  settle  much  more  slowly  and  conse- 
quently do  not  need  continuous  agitation.  If  we 


An  Agitating  Device 

omit  Paris  green  from  consideration,  the  liquids  now 
in  general  use  can  be  sufficiently  stirred  at  short  inter- 
vals— best  while  the  rig  is  moving  from  one  tree  to 
another.  A  separate  agitating  device  is  therefore 
preferable.  The  operator  can  do  more  with  the  few 
vigorous  turns  he  is  then  able  to  give  the  agitator 
than  is  possible  when  the  motion  is  dependent  upon 
the  pump  handle.  On  large,  flat  tanks  it  is  prac- 
tically impossible  to  keep  up  a  sufficient  pressure  and 


APPARATUS  41 

thorough  agitation  with  the  same  stroke  by  hand. 
Two  or  three  paddles  are  necessary,  depending,  of 
course,  upon  the  length  of  the  tank.  These  can  be 
connected  to  a  lever  on  top,  a  few  vigorous  strokes 
of  which,  at  intervals,  will  suffice  to  keep  up  a  very 
thorough  dissemination  throughout  the  tank." 

Fasten  Pump  on  Side  of  Barrel — It  is  much  better 
to  fasten  the  pump  on  the  side  of  the  barrel  rather 
than  on  the  end.  In  the  latter  case  the  pump  handle 
is  too  high  for  a  man  to  work  to  best  advantage,  and 
the  motion  of  the  wagon  is  much  less  likely  to  keep 
the  liquid  sufficiently  agitated  to  prevent  the  settling 
of  the  poison.  When  the  barrel  is  on  the  side  it  is 
much  easier  to  keep  the  liquid  agitated. 

Homemade  Strainer — ''It  is  a  general  precaution 
that  ought  to  be  observed  in  all  spraying  operations/' 
writes  Mr  W.  M.  Scott,  "that  everything  going  into 
the  spray  pump  barrel  should  pass  through  a  strainer, 
and  this  is  particularly  necessary  in  the  case  of  mix- 
tures containing  lime.  A  very  good  homemade 
strainer  may  be  made  from  a  strong  wooden  bucket 
by  boring  an  auger-hole  in  the  bottom  and  inserting  a 
six-inch  piece  of  iron  piping.  A  piece  of  wire  gauze, 
preferably  of  brass  or  of  copper,  is  then  tacked  over 
the  top  of  the  bucket ;  a  most  commodious  and  effective 
strainer  and  funnel  combined  is  thus  obtained." 

Fineness  of  Spray — In  most  spraying  operations 
the  object  is  to  distribute  the  poison  as  widely  and 
evenly  as  possible  over  the  surface  of  leaf  and  fruit. 
To  accomplish  this  a  fine  spray  is  to  be  desired,  for 
the  finer  the  drops  of  water  containing  the  particles 
of  poison  the  more  general  will  be  the  distribution  of 
those  particles.  Consequently  it  is  generally  desirable 
to  use  nozzles  which  break  the  liquid  up  into  a  fine 
mist  that  will  settle  slowly  on  all  parts  of  the  tree  or 
other  plant,  and  when  evaporated  will  leave  the  fine 


42  SPRAYING    CROPS 

particles  of  poison  rather  evenly  distributed  over  all 
the  exposed  surfaces. 

There  are  exceptions,  however,  to  this  general 
statement.  The  one  most  notable  is  the  case  of  spray- 
ing for  the  codling  motfc.  Our  present  knowledge 
regarding  this  insect  has  already  been  summarized 
on  page  2.  As  there  stated,  it  seems  especially 
desirable  in  fighting  this  pest  to  be  sure  to  lodge  some 
particles  of  poison  inside  the  calyx  of  the  young  fruit. 
Apparently  this  is  not  so  well  accomplished  by  a  mist- 
like  spray  as  by  one  more  coarse.  Consequently  it  is 
generally  recommended  that  in  spraying  for  the  cod- 
ling moth  a  spray  be  used  that  may  be  readily  directed 
against  the  young  fruit,  forcing  good-sized  drops  to 
lodge  in  the  calyx  so  that  on  evaporation  they  will 
leave  behind  a  sufficient  residue  of  poison  to  insure 
the  destruction  of  the  young  worms  when  they  attempt 
to  enter  the  fruit. 

Amount  of  Spray  to  Apply — In  general,  spraying 
is  to  be  carried  simply  to  a  point  where  foliage  and 
fruit  are  thoroughly  moistened.  As  soon  as  leaves 
begin  to  drip  it  is  time  to  stop,  for  if  the  application 
is  continued  the  globules  of  liquid  will  run  together, 
leaving  on  evaporation  an  excess  of  material  on  some 
parts  and  not  enough  on  others. 

On  this  phase  of  the  subject,  Professor  L.  H. 
Bailey's  advice  is  to  "spray  thoroughly  or  not  at  all." 
And  he,  adds :  "I  should  say  that  fully  half  the 
spraying  which  I  have  seen  in  western  New  York  the 
last  two  years  is  a  waste  of  time  and  material. 
Squirting  a  few  quarts  of  water  at  a  tree  as  you  hurry 
past  it,  is  not  spraying.  A  tree  is  thoroughly  and 
honestly  sprayed  when  it  is  wet  all  over,  on  all  the 
branches  and  on  both  sides  of  all  the  leaves.  An 
insect  or  a  fungus  is  not  killed  until  the  poison  is 
placed  where  the  pest  is.  Bugs  do  not  search  for 


COST    OF    SPRAYING  43 

poison,  in  order  that  they  may  accommodate  the 
orcharclist  by  committing  suicide.  The  one  spot  which 
is  not  sprayed  may  be  the  very  place  where  a  bud- 
worm  is  getting  his  dinner.  On  the  other  hand  there 
are  many  fruit-growers  who  spray  with  the  greatest 
thoroughness  and  accuracy,  and  they  are  the  ones  who 
in  the  long  run  will  get  the  fruit." 

COST     OF     SPRAYING 

The  cost  of  spraying  depends,  of  course,  upon 
various  conditions,  such  as  the  crop  sprayed,  number 
of  applications,  apparatus,  and  mixture  used,  etc.  It 
is  usually  estimated  that  full-grown  orchard  trees  can 
be  sprayed  at  a  cost  of  15  to  25  cents  per  tree  per 
season,  while  nursery  trees  can  be  treated  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  the  first  two  seasons  for  about  25 
cents  per  thousand  trees  per  season. 

Professor  L.  R.  Jones,  of  the  Vermont  Station, 
has  summarized  several  seasons'  experience  of  the 
expense  of  spraying  potatoes  as  follows :  "It  is  im- 
possible to  give  a  general  estimate  that  will  suit  all 
cases,  as  there  are  so  many  varying  conditions.  The 
amount  of  the  mixture  necessary  to  cover  an  acre  will 
vary  all  the  way  from  50  to  300  gallons,  according  to 
the  amount  of  foliage  and  the  methods  of  application. 
Where  we  have  covered  an  acre  with  50  gallons  in 
the  middle  of  July,  we  have  used  100  or  150  gallons 
per  acre  on  the  same  piece  in  August.  Again,  in  the 
latter  part  of  August,  we  have  sprayed  a  poor  piece 
of  half-blighted  plants  with  100  gallons  per  acre,  and 
on  the  same  day,  on  another  piece  where  the  ground 
was  covered  with  a  mass  of  luxuriant  leaves,  we  have 
found  it  necessary  to  use  fully  250  gallons  per  acre. 
Again,  .  .  .  the  number  of  applications  varies  with 


44  SPRAYING     CROPS 

seasons.  In  1891,  a  single  application,  made  August 
20,  was  sufficient  on  a  piece  of  late  potatoes,  while 
in  1892  three  applications  were  necessary.  In  general, 
we  should  plan  for  making  three  applications  on  all 
except  very  early  or  very  late  potatoes.  These  three 
applications  will  require  from  200  to  500  gallons  of 
the  mixture  —  on  the  average  400  gallons  —  used  (in 
Vermont)  as  follows:  100  gallons  per  acre  the  last 
of  July,  150  gallons  per  acre  the  middle  of  August,  150 
gallons  per  acre  the  last  of  August.  This  estimate  is 
for  a  field  planted  about  May  15  to  May  20,  and 
which  will  yield  200  bushels  per  acre.  In  our  work  it 
has  taken  (for  three  applications)  about  2  gallons  of 
mixture  per  bushel  of  yield.  On  early  potatoes  a 
fourth  application  may  sometimes  be  necessary  to  keep 
off  the  early  blight,  the  first  application  being  made 
the  first  week  in  July;  in  this  case  it  will  take  about 
2J/2  gallons  per  bushel  of  yield.  The  mixture  costs 
us  about  %  cent  per  gallon,  as  follows  : 

5  pounds  blue  vitriol  at  7  cents  .....................  $o  35 

5  pounds  lime  at  ^  cent  ............................. 


Total  cost  of  50  gallons  weak  mixture  ..........  $o 

"As  most  potato  growers  have  to  pay  a  little 
more  than  this  for  blue  vitriol,  one  cent  per  gallon  is 
about  the  average  cost.  The  cost  of  applying  also 
varies  much,  depending  upon  luxuriance  of  growth 
of  plants,  and  upon  apparatus  used.  In  our  work, 
with  a  barrel  pump,  three  men  and  one  horse  have 
sprayed  an  acre  well  in  two  hours,  when  water  was 
convenient,  or  at  the  rate  of  five  acres  per  day,  making 
the  expense  of  labor  about  $i  per  acre.  Others  with 
similar  apparatus  have  said  they  could  cover  ten 
acres  a  day." 


PROFITS     IN     SPRAYING  45 

The  cost  of  spraying  one  acre  of  potatoes  three 
times  is  summarized  thus : 

MINIMUM     MAXIMUM     AVERAGE 

200  to  500  gallons  at  i  cent  each. .  $2  oo    $5  oo    $4  oo 
Labor  i  50     3  75     3  oo 


$3  50    $8  75    $7  oo 

"When  we  consider  our  gain  of  an  average  of  113 
bushels  per  acre,  worth  last  fall  80  cents  per  bushel, 
or  $90.40,  the  profit  is  great  even  at  the  maximum 
expense." 

PROFITS     IN     SPRAYING 

The  profit  of  spraying  has  been  abundantly  dem- 
onstrated in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States. 
The  benefit  derived  is  usually  so  marked  that  the  man 
who  tries  the  method  becomes  its  enthusiastic  advo- 
cate. In  most  cases  there  is  not  only  a  greatly  in- 
creased crop,  but  the  quality  of  the  crop  is  so  improved 
that  it  commands'  a  higher  price;  and  in  the  case  of 
vines,  or  any  plants  living  more  than  one  year,  the 
plant  is  kept  in  a  vigorous  condition  that  enables  it  to 
store  up  vitality  for  the  following  crop.  In  Ohio  it 
has  been  demonstrated  that  spraying  can  easily  ad- 
vance the  value  of  the  apple  crop  $20  per  acre;  and 
in  many  states  it  has  been  shown  that  spraying  is  the 
salvation  of  the  grape-grower.  In  Vermont  it  has 
been  demonstrated  that  the  potato  crop  can  be 
increased  more  than  100  bushels  per  acre  by  spraying, 
while  in  New  York  it  proves  equally  profitable  to  the 
nurseryman.  In  California,  fruit-growers  generally 
have  adopted  it  with  very  gratifying  results.  Mr 
D.  W.  Coquillett  records  an  instance  where  a  pear- 
grower  actually  lost  $2000  one  season  because  he  neg- 
lected to  spray  to  prevent  codling  moth  attack.  At 
the  Cornell  Experiment  Station  an  increase  in  cash 


46  SPRAYING    CROPS 

value  of  $i  a  barrel  on  sprayed  over  unsp rayed  apples 
was  obtained.  There  are  many  secondary  profits  in 
spraying  besides  the  prevention  of  actual  damage. 
The  fruit  becomes  much  larger  in  size;  consequently 
the  yield  is  greatly  increased,  as  is  also  the  market 
value  of  the  product.  The  same  is  true  of  potatoes. 
The  keeping  qualities  are  also  very  much  improved— 
an  item  of  great  practical  importance.  And  accord- 
ing to  Mr  B.  T.  Galloway,  the  application  of  Bordeaux 
mixture  has  on  many  plants  the  effect  of  a  tonic, 
irrespective  of  its  fungicidal  value. 

Spraying  Is  an  Insurance — "There  are  always 
elements  of  risk  in  the  growing  of  fruit,"  writes 
Professor  L.  H.  Bailey  in  a  famous  bulletin  on  Spray- 
ing Orchards.  "The  chief  of  these  is  frost,  a  difficulty 
which  will  never  be  completely  under  control.  The 
second  great  element  of  risk  is  the  injury  wrought 
by  insects  and  fungi  and  the  greater  part  of  this  injury 
may  be  averted  by  the  sprays.  Now,  it  is  impossible 
to  foretell  by  any  considerable  length  of  time,  if  any 
or  all  of  the  difficulties  which  are  liable  to  harass 
the  fruit-raiser  will  actually  appear.  One  does  not 
know  if  his  buildings  will  burn,  yet  he  insures  them. 
We  know  that  in  four  years  out  of  five,  some  serious 
injury  of  insects  or  fungi  may  be  confidently  expected, 
and  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  insure  against  it.  Last 
year,  1894,  was  a  season  of  remarkable  invasion  of 
apple-scab  fungus,  and  those  persons  who  sprayed 
their  orchards  thoroughly  had  phenomenal  results. 
These  experiences,  aided  by  many  publications  upon 
the  subject,  so  advertised  the  value  of  the  sprays  that 
much  more  spraying  was  done  in  the  state  this  year 
than  ever  before.  But  it  has  so  happened,  probably 
because  of  the  dry  spring,  that  comparatively  few 
invasions  of  enemies  have  occurred  this  year;  and  the 
sprays  have  generally  given  small  results.  There  has 


PKOl-TI'S     IN     SI-RAYING  47 

now  arisen,  therefore,  considerable  indifference  or 
even  opposition  to  spraying,  and  I  expect  to  see  much 
less  of  it  next  spring  then  I  saw  this  spring.  If,  then, 
next  year  should  be  prolific  in  insects  and  diseases, 
there  will  be  a  few  orchards  here  and  there  which 
will  reward  the  forethought  of  the  owner,  and  very 
many  others  which  will  be  monuments  of  the  results 
of  neglect.  It  is  a  common  fault  with  farmers  that 
they  draw  their  conclusions  from  the  behavior  or 
experiences  of  each  recurring  season,  and  do  not  con- 
sider the  aggregate  results  of  a  series  of  years.  Every 
operation  should  rest  upon  some  fundamental  reason 
or  philosophy,  rather  than  upon  any  single  half- 
understood  experience. 

"A  fruit  grower  wrote  me  as  follows  last  July: 

1  'You  are  always  advising  people  to  spray  their 

orchards.     All   my    neighbors    spent   much    time    and 

money  last  spring  in  spraying,  but  I   did  not  spray 

and  my  fruit  is  just  as  good  as  theirs.' 

'  'I  do  not  doubt  your  experience,'  I  replied ; 
'this  has  been  a  dry  year  and  there  has  been  little 
scab  fungus.  But  you  should  have  insured  your 
orchard  against  probable  loss  by  spraying  it.' 

"A"  few  days  later,  the  same  correspondent  wrote 
again :  'We  have  had  a  heavy  rain,  but  it  seemed  to 
be  poisonous  to  my  potatoes  and  they  are  all  black- 
ened and  wilted.  What  shall  I  do?' 

"I  hope  that  there  was  no  feeling  of  scarcasm  in 
my  reply :  'I  am  sorry  to  hear  of  your  loss,  but  it 
is  now  too  late  to  avert  the  calamity.  Your  potatoes 
were  not  insured.' ' 

Effect  on  Size  of  Fruit — There  is  a  very  general 
agreement  that  apple  trees  properly  sprayed  with  a 
combined  fungicide  and  insecticide  yield  larger  fruit 
than  those  not  sprayed.  A  striking  instance  of  this 
as  recorded  by  Lodeman,  is  illustrated  in  the  picture 


4«  SPRAYING    CROPS 

below :  "One  hundred  average  unsprayed  apples 
filled  a  half-bushel  basket  evenly  full;  one  hundred 
average  sprayed  apples  filled  a  bushel  basket  evenly 
full.  Thus  the  bulk  of  the  crop  of  Maiden  Blush  was 
practically  doubled." 

Spraying  ,has  also  been  found  to  have  a  decidedly 
beneficial  effect  on  the  color  of  the  fruit. 

Tillage,  Fertilizing,  Pruning,  Spraying — "Spray- 
ing has  come  into  use  so  quickly,"  writes  Professor 
L.  H.  Bailey,  "that  many  people  have  come  to  look 


upon  it  as  the  means  of  salvation  of  our  orchards. 
If  spraying  is  to  have  the  effect  of  obscuring  or 
depreciating  the  importance  of  good  cultivation  and 
fertilizing  then  it  might  better  have  never  come  into 
being.  Trees  must  grow  before  they  can  bear,  and 
this  growth  depends  upon  food  and  proper  conditions 
of  soil,  more  than  it  does  upon  the  accident  of 
immunity  from  insects  and  fungi.  There  are  four 
fundamental  operations  upon  which  all  permanent 
success  in  most  kinds  of  orchard  culture  depend,  and 
I  think  that  their  importance  lies  in  the  order  in  which 
I  name  them — tillage,  fertilizing,  pruning,  spraying. 
Spraying  is  the  last  to  be  understood,  but  this  fact 
should  not  obscure  the  importance  of  the  other 
three." 


SPRAYING    TREES     IN     BLOSSOM  49 

SPRAYING     AND     THE     WEATHER 

According1  to  Professor  J.  B.  Smith,  spraying  with 
the  arsenites  alone  "should  not  be  done  in  the  middle 
of  a  very  hot  day,  nor,  if  it  can  be  avoided,  on  a  very 
hot  sultry  day.  A  hot  sun  on  recently  sprayed  foliage 
will  bring  out  all  the  caustic  property  in  the  poison 
applied,  and  will  cause  injury.  After  the  moisture 
has  evaporated,  and  only  the  thin  film,  of  dry  poison 
remains,  the  sun  does  not  act  further  on  it.  On  a 
cool  day  spray  at  any  hour.  On  a  hot  day  spray  during 
the  early  morning  or  late  in  the  afternoon."  These 
precautions  are  not  necessary,  however,  when  arsen- 
ate  of  lead  is  used. 

Frequent  rains  often  occur  during  the  spraying 
season,  and  fruit-growers  are  sometimes  tempted  to 
defer  operations  till  dry  weather,  but  according  to  the 
experience  of  Mr  W.  J.  Green,  it  is  better,  in  the  case 
of  the  Bordeaux  mixture  at  least,  "to  keep  the  work 
going  than  to  wait  for  dry  weather.  Of  course  it 
would  be  impracticable  to  spray  during  a  rain-storm, 
nor  would  it  be  best  to  spray  immediately  before,  but 
if  the  mixture  has  two  or  three  hours  in  which  to  dry 
before  a  rain,  it  will  adhere  so  closely  that  but  little  of 
it  will  be  washed  off.  Much  of  it  will  remain  for 
weeks,  even  during  rainy  weather." 

SPRAYING     TREES     IN     BLOSSOM 

It  is  commonly  believed  that  spraying  trees  in 
blossom,  in  case  the  arsenites  are  used,  endangers  the 
lives  of  the  bees  visiting  the  blossoms.  In  some 
regions  laws  to  prevent  this  have  been  enacted. 
Spraying  at  such  times  seems  unnecessary,  and  intel- 
ligent fruit-growers  would  not  practice  it.  The  bees 
are  essential  to  the  production  of  fruit,  and  there  is 
no  excuse  for  destroying  them. 


5O  SPRAYING     CROPS 


PRUNING     TREES 

To  use  the  spraying  machine  to  best  advantage 
the  orchard  should  be  carefully  and  intelligently 
pruned.  On  this  potnt  Mr  E.  G.  Lodeman  writes:1 
"The  pruning  and  spraying  of  fruit  trees  are  two 
subjects  which  are  closely  related.  This  is  especially 
true  in  the  case  of  the  apple.  Moisture  is  favorable  to 
the  development  of  the  apple-scab  fungus.  When  the 
tops  of  trees  consist  of  a  tangled  mass  of  large  and 
small  branches,  they  are  much  longer  in  dying  out 
than  when  they  are  open.  Not  only  is  a  shelter  given 
to  fungi,  but  their  growth  is  encouraged,  and  each  tree 
becomes  the  distributing  center  of  some  disease.  The 
mischief  is  also  aggravated  by  the  fact  that  it  is  as  dif- 
ficult for  any  remedies  to  gain  an  entrance  as  it  is  for 
the  light  and  air.  It  is  impossible  to  spray  such  trees 
to  advantage,  even  granting  that  the  fruit  borne  by 
them  would  warrant  the  expense.  The  head  of  the 
tree  should  be  open,  so  that  all  parts  may  be  reached 
easily  with  the  spray."  The  presence  of  these  useless 
branches  also  requires  the  application  of  much  more 
of  the  spraying  compound  than  is  otherwise  necessary, 
thus  involving  a  decided  waste  of  time  and  material. 
P>y  all  means  prune  your  orchards  properly  before  you 
spray  them. 

In  planting  new  orchards,  the  trees  should  be  set 
so  far  apart  that  when  full-grown  they  may  easily  be 
sprayed.  They  should  not  be  nearer  together  than 
40  feet  each  way. 

A     SPRAYING    CALENDAR 

Dr  William  C.  Sturgis  of  the  Connecticut  Exper- 
iment Station  has  published  the  following  provisional 
calendar  of  the  spraying  operations  for  the  year.  As 

JCornell  University  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  48. 


A    SPRAYING    CALENDAR  51 

the  author  says,  it  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  give 
accurate  dates  for  various  sprayings,  on  account  of 
the  difference  in  latitudes  and  seasons.  But  the  dates 
are  approximate,  and  the  calendar  has  a  decided  value. 

January  and  February — But  little  can  be  done 
during  these  midwinter  months  in  the  way  of  spray- 
ing, though  a  great  deal  by  way  of  preparation.  If 
it  has  not  already  been  done  at  the  proper  time,  cut 
out  and  burn  the  black  knot  of  plum  and  cherry  now, 
and  destroy  all  neighboring  wild  cherry  trees  which 
are  knotty.  In  the  latter  part  of  February  do  all 
necessary  trimming  of  vines  and  fruit  trees,  unless 
this  has  been  done  in  the  autumn.  Where  anthracnose 
has  previously  attacked  grapevines,  raspberries,  or 
blackberries,  prune  severely,  cut  out  every  trace  of 
diseased  wood  or  cane  and  burn  it.  ...  In  open 
winters,  February  is  none  too  early  to  go  over  the 
orchard  carefully  and  collect  and  burn  all  leaves  and 
fruit  from  diseased  trees,  such  as  mummified  cherries, 
plums,  and  peaches,  scabby  or  rotted  pears  and  quinces, 
and  all  blighted  leaves.  Remember  that  on  the  first 
warm  day  the  air  will  be  full  of  the  germs  of  plant 
diseases  from  these  fruits  and  leaves,  if  they  are  not 
destroyed.  Do  not  use  them  for  bedding  or  mulch, 
and  do  not  throw  them  into  the  pig-pen. 

March — The  middle  or  end  of  this  month  will  see 
everything  ready  for  winter  treatment  (copper  sul- 
phate, i  pound  to  25  gallons  of  water).  Select  a 
warm  day,  or,  if  possible,  several  days  of  warm, 
melting  weather.  In  some  seasons  winter  treatment 
can  hardly  be  made  before  April.  This  treatment  is 
especially  good  for  diseases  of  pear  and  quince,  for 
anthracnose  and  for  the  black  rot  of  grapes.  Where 
the  latter  has  occurred  the  previous  year,  ploughing 
between  the  rows,  in  order  to  cover  up  diseased  berries, 


52  SPRAYING     CROPS 

will  be  found  of  great  advantage.  This  is  the  time 
also  for  treatment  for  San  Jose  scale. 

April — Put  all  spraying  apparatus  in  thorough 
order.  Clean  and  riiase  pumps,  oil  all  bearings,  see 
thai  the  valves  work  well,  and  test  the  tubing  for  leaks. 
If  the  winter  treatment  has  been  deferred  until  this 
month,  •  see  that  it  is  finished  before  the  middle  of 
the  month. 

May — This  is  usually  the  flowering  month  for 
vines  and  fruit  trees,  and  the  first  application  of 
Bordeaux  mixture  or  other  fungicide  should  immedi- 
ately precede  the  opening  of  the  flowers.  Use  your 
own  judgment.  Apples  are  generally  in  bloom  by 
the  second  week  in  May ;  quinces,  pears,  and  grapes 
usually  not  until  somewhat  later.  The  importance  of 
these  early  treatments  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 
Watch  to  see  when  the  petals  begin  to  fall ;  and  make 
a  second  application  within  a  few  days  of  that  date. 

June — The  first  part  of  June  usually  marks  the 
fall  of  the  flowers  of  most  fruit  trees.  Never  spray 
while  trees  and  vines  are  in  full  bloom.  Make  the 
second  application  as  soon  as  the  petals  have  fallen. 
This  will  be  late  in  May  or  early  in  June,  for  apples ; 
a  week  or  ten  days  later  for  other  fruit  trees  and 
grapes.  Make  the  June  treatment  thorough.  .  .  . 
A  good  general  rule  to  follow  after  the  second  spray- 
ing is  to  let  each  additional  treatment  be  made  from 
ten  days  to  three  weeks  after  the  preceding  one;  the 
shorter  interval  if  there  are  heavy  washing  rains;  the 
longer  if  the  weather  is  comparatively  dry. 

July — This  month  will  close  the  treatment  for  most 
diseases.  To  avoid  the  spotting  of  grapes  by  the  Bor- 
deaux mixture,  the  two  applications  during  the  latter 
part  of  this  month  should  consist  of  the  ammoniacal 
solution  of  copper  carbonate.  Early  in  the  month 


A    SPRAYING    CALENDAR  53 

spray  for  black  rot  of  quinces,  and  continue  treatment 
every  two  weeks  until  the  last  of  August. 

August — The  spraying  season  closes  this  month. 
For  leaf -blight  of  strawberries,  mow  the  leaves  late  in 
July  or  early  in  August,  and  after  allowing  them  to  dry 
where  they  lie,  set  fire  to  them  and  burn  the  bed  over. 
Thoroughly  clean  and  oil  all  spraying  apparatus,  and 
see  that  it  is  carefully  stored. 

September,  October,  and  November — The  months 
of  harvest.  When  picking  fruit  let  one  or  two  boys 
follow  and  clean  the  trees  of  all  diseased  and  mummi- 
fied fruit,  collecting  it  in  baskets  to  burn.  At  the  same 
time  gather  and  burn,  as  far  as  possible,  all  diseased 
fruit  which  has  fallen.  In  November  clean  the  orchard 
thoroughly  of  fallen  leaves,  especially  if  disease  has 
been  prevalent,  and  burn  them.  Better  to  destroy 
them  now  than  in  the  spring,  when  the  fungus  fruit 
will  have  come  to  maturity  in  and  on  the  leaves. 

December — The  black  knot  fungus  matures  during 
December  and  January ;  attack  it  early  in  the  former 
month.  Use  the  pruning  knife  unsparingly,  cutting 
out  two  or  three  inches  above  and  below  each  knot. 
Burn  every  knot  and  paint  the  wound  over  at  once. 

SPRAYING    PRECAUTIONS 

The  man  who  uses  a  spraying  machine  assumes  a 
responsibility  which  he  has  no  right  to  neglect.  Some 
precautions  to  be  taken  are  indicated  below. 

Always  label  all  poisonous  preparations  in  plain 
large  letters,  POISON.  Never  leave  poisonous  com- 
pounds within  the  reach  of  children,  ignorant  persons, 
or  domestic  animals.  Never  spray  trees  in  blossom. 

In  using  a  compound  with  which  you  have  had  no 
experience,  and  which  is  reported  as  at  all  liable  to 
injure  foliage,  use  only  weak  mixtures,  and,  if  pos- 
sible, try  its  effects  first  on  a  small  scale. 


54  SPRAYING    CROPS 

Own  a  spraying  pump  yourself.  If  you  have  to 
wait  to  borroiv  your  neighbor's,  the  chances  are  that 
you  will  begin  too  late. 

Spray  in  time;  fogin  early ;  do  not  wait  until  the 
horse  is  stolen  and  then  try  to  lock  the  door  by 
spraying. 

Do  not  spray  indiscriminately,  anything  ani 
everything.  Adapt  your  means  to  your  ends.  Study 
Ihe  enemies  of  your  crops  and  then  fight  them 
intelligently. 

Of  two  mixtures  equally  effective,  choose  the  one 
least  liable  to  injure  foliage.  Take  the  trouble  to  add 
a  little  lime  to  Paris  green  or  London  purple  mixtures. 

Never  spray  ripening  fruit. 

Always  remember  that  spraying  requires  the 
exercise  of  skill,  judgment  and  knowledge,  to  get  the 
best  results. 


PART  I 

SPRAYING   THE    LARGER    FRUITS 


CL. 

San  Jose  Scale 

a,  pear,  moderately  infested — natural  size;  £,  female  scale — enlarged 
(After  Howard) 


Spraying  the  Larger  Fruits 


THE    APPLE 

INSECT      ENEMIES      OF      THE      TRUNK      AND      BRANCHES 

The  most  destructive  insect  that  comes  under  this 
heading  is  the  SAN  JOSE  SCALE  or  PERNICIOUS  SCALE. 
which  has  attracted  so  much  attention  during  recent 
years.  This  pest  is  now  very  generally  distributed 
over  the  United  States  and  is  yearly  doing  an  enor- 
mous amount  of  damage.  It  can  at  once  be  distin- 
guished from  the  Oyster-shell  Bark-louse  by  its  cir- 
cular scale,  as  shown  at  b  in  the  figure  on  the  opposite 
page.  This  insect  infests  practically  all  kinds  of 
deciduous  trees,  and  if  unmolested  it  is  liable  to  kill 
them.  It  multiplies  with  marvelous  rapidity,  espe- 
cially through  the  long  seasons  of  the  southern  states. 

Dr  L.  O.  Howard  describes  the  San  Jose  scale  as 
"perfectly  round,  or  at  most  very  slightly  elongated 
or  irregular.  It  is  flat,  pressed  close  to  the  bark, 
resembles  the  bark  of  the  twigs  in  color,  and  when 
fully  grown  is  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
At  or  near  the  middle  of  each  scale  is  a  small,  round, 
slightly  elongated  black  point ;  or  this  point  may  some- 
times appear  yellowish.  When  occurring  upon  the 
bark  of  the  twigs  or  leaves  and  in  large  numbers,  the 
scales  lie  close  to  each  other,  frequently  overlapping, 
and  are  at  such  times  difficult  to  distinguish  without 
a  magnifying  glass.  The  general  appearance  which 
they  present  is  of  a  grayish,  very  slightly  roughened 


58  Sl'RAVI. \G     CROPS 

scurfy  deposit.  The  natural  rich  reddish  color  of  the 
limbs  of  the  peach  and  apple  is  quite  obscured  when 
these  trees  are  thickly  infested,  and  they  have  then 
every  appearance  of  being*  coated  with  lime  or  ashes. 
When  the  scales  are  crushed  by  scraping,  a  yellowish 
oily  liquid  will  appear,  resulting  from  the  crushing 
of  the  soft  yellow  insects  beneath  the  scales,  and  this 


San  Jose  Scale 

Apple  branch,  with  scales  in  situ— natural  size;  enlarged  scales  above,  at  left 
(After  Howard) 

will  at  once  indicate  to  one  who  is  not  familiar  with 
their  appearance  the  existence  of  healthy  living  scales 
on  the  trees." 

The  young  scale  lice  come  out  from  beneath  the 
female  scales,  in  spring,  soon  after  the  unfolding  of 
the  leaves.  They  are  minute  yellowish  creatures 
which  crawl  about  over  the  bark  a  short  time,  and 
finally  fasten  themselves  to  it,  generally  on  the  new 


THE     APPLE  59 

growth,  where  each  secretes  a  scale  and  develops. 
Some  of  them  wander  to  the  leaves  and  fruit,  where 
they  mature.  The  infested  leaves  turn  brown,  but 
do  not  have  a  tendency  to  fall  as  a  result  of  the 
damage. 

This  pest  is  most  likely  to  be  introduced  into  new 
localities  upon  nursery  stock  imported  from  infested 
regions.  This  is  believed  to  be  the  way  in  which  it 
was  first  brought  to  the  eastern  states.  It  is  also  likely 
to  be  carried  upon  fruit  sent  to  market.  In  a  given 
locality  the  insects  are  most  likely  to  be  carried  from 
tree  to  tree  and  orchard  to  orchard  by  the  young  lice 
crawling  upon  insects  and  birds  and  then  crawling  off 
after  they  have  lit  upon  other  trees.  They  may  also 
be  blown  about  by  the  wind. 

Remedies — The  two  remedies  now  generally 
employed  in  the  eastern  states  are  kerosene  or  crude 
petroleum  and  the  lime,  salt  and  sulphur  wash.  The 
latter  has  been  rapidly  gaining  friends  of  late  and  by 
many  authorities  is  considered  the  most  effective 
remedy.  Both  of  these  insecticides  are  applied  in 
winter  or  early  spring — before  the  leaves  appear.  The 
application  must  be  thorough — covering  all  parts  of 
the  tree. 

A  piece  of  bark  covered  with  the  scales  of  the 
OYSTER-SHELL  BARK-LOUSE  is  represented  on  page  60. 
If  one  of  these  scales  be  raised  early  in  the  spring, 
there  will  be  found  beneath  it  a  mass  of  yellowish 
or  whitish  eggs,  which  hatch  about  the  middle  of 
May  into  small  lice,  that  appear  as  mere  specks 
to  the  naked  eye.  These  move  about  over  the 
bark  a  few  days,  when  they  fix  themselves  upon  it, 
inserting  their  tiny  beaks  far  enough  to  reach  the  sap. 
Here  they  continue  to  increase  in  size,  and  by  the 
end  of  the  season  have  secreted  scaly  coverings. 


6o 


SPRAYING    CROPS 


Remedies — During  the  winter  and  early  spring 
scrape  the  trunk  and  larger  branches  with  a  hoe,  and 
then  thoroughly  scrub  with  a  scrub-brush  dipped  in  a 
solution  made  by  adding  .one  part  of  crude  carbolic 
acid  to  seven  parts  of  a  solution  made  by  dissolving 


Oyster=shell  Bark= louse 


a,  scales  on  apple  twig;  6,  female  scale,  back  view,  magnified;  c,  female  scale 
and  eggs,  under-side,  magnified;  </,  male  scale,  magnified 

one  quart  of  soft  soap,  or  one-fourth  of  a  pound  of 
hard  soap,  in  two  quarts  of  boiling  water.  Then  in 
May  or  June,  soon  after  the  young  lice  have  hatched, 
spray  with  kerosene  emulsion.  When  the  lice  are 
young  they  are  very  readily  destroyed  by  this  sub- 
stance. The  lime,  salt  and  sulphur  wash  appears  to 
be  effective  also  against  this  pest. 


Transformations  of  the  Tent  Caterpillar 

(After  Riley) 


62  SPRAYING    CROPS 

There  are  frequently  found  on  the  limbs  and 
trunks  of  young  apple  trees,  masses  of  a  white,  woolly 
substance,  beneath  which  are  small,  yellowish  plant- 
lice.  These  are  the  inserts  known  as  the  WOOLLY 
APHIS.  There  are  two  forms  of  the  insect,  one 
attacking  the  roots,  the  presence  of  which  may  be 
easily  detected  by  the  knotty  appearance  of  the  infested 
rootlets,  and  one  attacking  the  limbs  and  trunk.  Like 
other  aphides,  these  insects  multiply  rapidly  during  the 
summer  months,  by  giving  birth  to  living  young.  They 
injure  the  tree  by  sucking  out  its  sap  through  their 
tiny  beaks.  They  are  especially  liable  to  infest  young 
trees,  or  those  which  are  unhealthy. 

Remedies — When  on  the  trunk  and  limbs  spray 
with  kerosene  emulsion ;  on  roots  apply  hot  water,  or 
kerosene  emulsion,  or  dig  in  refuse  tobacco  powder 
and  stems. 

INSECT   ENEMIES   OF    THE    FRUIT 

The  insects  affecting  the  fruit  of  the  apple,  which 
may  be  fought  by  spraying,  are  the  Codling  Moth,  and 
the  Plum  and  Apple  Curculios.  Of  these,  the  COD- 
LING MOTH  or  APPLE  WORM  is  the  most  destructive, 
and  is,  in  fact,  the  most  generally  injurious  apple 
insect.  Its  life-history  has  already  been  described  in 
the  Introduction  (page  2).  In  fighting  this  insect 
it  is  often  desirable  to  supplement  the  spraying  with 
burlap  bands  upon  the  trees  the  latter  part  of  June  to 
trap  the  worms  when  they  change  to  pupae,  crushing 
them  before  they  emerge  as  moths.  Care  should  be 
taken  also  to  prevent  the  egress  of  moths  in  spring 
from  rooms  in  which  apples  have  been  stored. 

In  Oregon  it  seems  to  be  necessary  to  spray  late 
for  the  second  brood  of  worms.  But  if  the  burlap 
bands  were  used  persistently  this  probably  could  be 
avoided. 


THE     APPLE  63 

The  APPLE  CURCULIO  is  a  small,  dull  brown,  hard- 
shelled  beetle,  with  a  long  snout  and  four  peculiar 
warts  on  its  back.  The  beetles  drill  holes  in  young 
apples,  both  for  food  and  the  deposition  of  eggs.  The 
latter  are  laid  at  the  bottom  of  the  cavity,  and  soon 
hatch  into  grubs  or  larvae  that  feed  upon  the  pulp  of 
the  fruit.  They  usually  penetrate  to  the  core,  where 
they  continue  feeding  four  or  five  weeks,  when  they 
become  full  grown  and  pupate  within  the  cavity  of  the 


Apple  Buds 

apple.  Two  or  three  weeks  later  they  emerge  as  per- 
fect beetles,  which  pass  the  winter  under  boards  or 
rubbish.  The  fruit  attacked  by  this  pest  becomes 
dwarfed,  gnarly  and  ill-shapen.  Apples  are  often 
seriously  injured  by  the  PLUM  CURCULIO,  which  works 
in  a  way  similar  to  the  apple  curculio.  Its  life-history 
is  described  on  page  4. 

Remedies — The  injuries  of  these  two  insects,  as 
well  as  of  several  others  of  minor  importance,  may  be 
prevented  to  a  considerable  extent  by  spraying  with  the 


64  SPRAYING     CROPS 

arsenical  poisons.  Spray  first  as  soon  as  the  blossoms 
have  all  fallen,  and  again  about  ten  days  later.  In 
localities  where  the  curculios  are  very  injurious,  one  or 
two  more  sprayings  may  often  be  made  to  advantage 
at  intervals  of  two  weeks,  especially  on  late  varieties. 
It  will  pay  to  add  lime  to  the  spraying  solution  (see 
page  10),  unless  the  arsenite  is  combined  with  Bor- 
deaux mixture,  which  has  the  same  saving  effect.  The 
addition  of  lime  is  not  necessary,  however,  if  arsenate 
of  lead  is  used. 

The  poison  is  supposed  to  take  effect  in  the  case 
of  the  codling  moth  by  destroying  the  young 
larvae  just  after  hatching  and  probably  while  attempt- 
ing to  nibble  through  the  skin ;  while  with  the 
curculios  it  takes  effect  upon  the  parent  beetles,  thus 
preventing  the  deposition  of  eggs. 

INSECT    ENEMIES    OF    THE    FOLIAGE 

A  large  variety  of  insects  feed  upon  apple  foliage. 
Many  of  them  are  caterpillars  of  moths,  and  are  easily 
destroyed  by  spraying.  Among  the  most  injurious  of 
these  are  the  CANKER  WORMS,  of  which  we  have  two 
distinct  species — the  FALL  CANKER  WORM  and  the 
SPRING  CANKER  WORM.  The  different  stages  of  the 
former  pest  are  illustrated  on  page  5,  where  a  resume 
of  its  life-history  will  be  found.  When  an  orchard  is 
infested  by  canker-worms  it  is  very  desirable  to  spray 
once  before  the  blossoms  open.  The  insects  begin 
hatching  early  in  the  season;  if  trees  are  not  sprayed 
until  after  the  blossoms  fall  considerable  damage  will 
be  done  before  the  worms  are  killed.  One  spraying 
just  before  the  blossom  buds  open  will  be  of  much 
service.  Another  should  be  given  as  soon  as  the  blos- 
soms fall ;  and  if  the  canker-worms  are  very  numerous 
a  third — a  week  or  ten  days  after  the  second — will 
be  desirable. 


THE     APPLE  65 

The  TENT  CATERPILLAR  is  another  insect  that  is 
often  extremely  destructive  to  apple  foliage.  This  is 
the  creature  that  constructs  the  silken  tent-like  nests 
so  often  seen  in  spring  on  the  branching  limbs  of  apple 
and  wild  cherry  trees.  Its  life-history  is  as  follows: 
The  eggs  are  deposited  during  July  in  compact  masses 
of  200  or  300  each  upon  the  twigs  (e,  c),  and  are 


Apple  Tree  Flea=Beetle 

(After  Popenoe) 

covered  with  varnish  (e).  The  following  spring 
they  hatch  into  caterpillars  that  feed  upon  the  tender 
foliage  and  make  a  silken  tent  in  a  fork  of  the  twigs. 
They  become  full  grown  in  about  six  weeks  (a,  b). 
They  then  leave  the  tree  and  crawl  about  in  search  of 
a  suitable  shelter  to  pupate  in.  Having  found  this — 
beneath  a  board,  or  in  the  cracks  of  a  fence — they  spin 
an  oval,  silken  cocoon  (d),  yellow  when  completed, 
within  which  they  change  to  pupae.  In  two  or  three 


66  SPRAYING    CROPS 

weeks  the  reddish-brown  moths  come  forth.  These 
deposit  the  clusters  of  eggs,  after  which  they  soon  die. 
There  are  a  number  of  other  caterpillars  which 
feed  upon  apple  foliage,  notably  several  species  of 
LEAF-ROLLERS,  the  YELLOW-NECKED  CATERPILLAR,  the 
LEAF-CRUMPLER,  the  LEAF-SKELETONIZER,  etc,  all  of 
which  are  treated  of  in  the  author's  Insects  and  Insecti- 
cides, and  all  of  which  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying. 
The  APPLE-TREE  FLEA-BEETLE  is  a  small  shining  beetle 
that  is  often  destructive  in  the  West.  Spraying  with 
the  arsenites  checks  it. 


Apple  Aphis 

Much  magnified 

The  Apple  ApJiis — During  spring  the  leaves  and 
tender  twigs  of  apple  are  often  covered  with  small 
green  lice  or  aphides.  These  are  the  insects  known  as 
the  APPLE  APHIS.  They  injure  the  trees  by  sucking 
the  sap  through  their  tiny  beaks.  The  lice  hatch  from 
eggs  in  spring  as  soon  as  the  leaf-buds  begin  to  expand, 
and  they  increase  with  marvelous  rapidity,  so  that 
almost  as  fast  as  the  leaves  develop  there  are  colonies 
of  the  plant-lice  to  occupy  them.  They  breed  on  apple 
until  July,  when  they  largely  leave  the  trees,  and 
migrate  apparently  to  various  grasses.  Here  they 


THE     APPLE  67 

continue  breeding  until  autumn,  when  they  return  to 
apple,  and  the  winged  females  establish  colonies  of 
the  wingless,  egg-laying  form  upon  the  leaves.  The 
small,  oval  eggs  are  now  laid  on  the  twigs  and  buds, 
and  the  cycle  for  the  year  is  complete. 

Remedy — On  large  trees  it  is  seldom  necessary 
to  apply  remedies  for  this  insect.  Spray  with  tobacco 
decoction  or  kerosene  emulsion  as  soon  in  spring  as 
the  eggs  hatch — usually  before  the  leaves  expand. 

The  opening  buds  of  apples  are  sometimes  seri- 
ously injured  by  the  larva  of  the  EYE-SPOTTED  BUD- 
MOTH.  This  is  a  small  cylindrical  worm,  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  long,  which  lives  in  a  rude  case 
made  by  fastening  particles  of  dead  leaves  together 
with  silk.  It  attacks  the  buds,  blossoms,  and  newly - 
formed  fruit  as  well  as  the  leaves,  and  becomes  full- 
grown  early  in  June.  The  larvae  then  pupate  within 
their  cases,  and  in  a  few  weeks  emerge  as  small  moths, 
with  two  little  eye-spots  on  each  of  the  front  wings. 

Remedies — This  is  a  difficult  pest  to  contend  with, 
and  the  most  promising  remedy  is  to  spray  early,  as 
the  buds  are  opening,  with  arsenate  of  lead  or  other 
arsenical  or  a  combination  of  an  arsenical  and  the 
Bordeaux  mixture,  continuing  the  treatment  later  as 
recommended  below. 

FUNGUS     ENEMIES 

Probably  no  fungous  disease  of  fruit  is  more 
familiar  to  the  general  public  than  the  APPLE  SCAB, 
or,  as  it  is  occasionally  called,  the  BLACK  SPOT.  This  is 
due  to  a  fungus  which  produces  the  well-known  scabby 
spots  upon  the  fruit,  and  also  attacks  the  leaves  and 
green  shoots.  It  first  appears  on  the  leaves  in  the 
shape  of  smoky,  greenish  spots,  more  or  less  circular 
in  outline.  These  gradually  enlarge,  and  frequently 
several  of  them  run  together,  so  as  to  form  good-sized 


68  Sl'RAYING    CROPS 

blotches;  and  as  they  grow  older  their  color  darkens, 
finally  becoming  almost  black.  The  upper  surface  of 
the  leaf  is  generally  the  one  infested.  Immense  num- 
bers of  spores  are  produced  on  these  blackened  spots 
of  the  leaf  and  fruit,  forming  most  abundantly  during 
cool,  wet  weather.  By  means  of  these  spores  the 
fungus  reproduces  itself;  they  are  carried  from  leaf 
to  leaf  and  fruit  to  fruit  by  wind  and  rain,  and  ger- 
minating, start  the  disease  in  a  new  situation.  The 
spores  pass  the  winter  on  stored  fruit,  branches,  fallen 
leaves,  etc,  and  in  spring  start  the  disease  again.  It 
is  especially  destructive  in  wet  seasons. 

A  disease  called  PINK  ROT  often  attacks  scabby 
apples  in  storage,  the  fungus  of  the  pink  rot  getting 
access  to  the  pulp  of  the  fruit  through  the  cracks  in 
the  skin  caused  by  the  scab. 

Remedies — In  spring,  just  before  blossoms  open, 
spray  thoroughly  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  repeat 
the  application  after  the  blossoms  have  fallen,  adding 
arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate  of  2  pounds  to  50  gallons,  in 
order  to  destroy  the  codling  moth  larvae,  and  other 
insects,  as  well  as  the  scab;  ten  days  after  this  last 
application,  spray  again  with  the  combination  of  Bor- 
deaux mixture  and  an  arsenical.  Do  not  apply  the 
Bordeaux  mixture  late  in  the  season ;  it  is  liable  to 
injure  the  skin  of  the  apple  by  giving  it  a  rough  and 
russet  appearance.  Fruit  sprayed  in  this  way  is  much 
larger  and  finer  than  that  not  sprayed. 

In  southerly  latitudes,  orchardists  are  greatly 
troubled  by  another  fungous  disease,  the  APPLE  ROT, 
which  attacks  the  maturing  fruit,  rotting  it  and  caus- 
ing serious  losses.  Experiments  in  Kentucky  by  Pro- 
fessor Carman  have  shown  that  this  disease  may  be 
prevented  by  treatment  with  Bordeaux  mixture  similar 
to  that  indicated  above. 


THE    PLUM 

INSECT    ENEMIES    OF    THE    FRUIT 

The  PLUM  CURCULIO  is  by  far  the  worst  insect  foe 
of  the  plum.  It  is  the  cause  of  most  of  the  common 
worminess  and  premature  dropping  of  the  fruit.  An 
account  of  its  life-history  will  be  found  on  page  4. 

Remedies — The  evidence  in  hand  indicates  that 
spraying  with  the  arsenites  is  an  effective  way  to  fight 
this  pest,  especially  in  orchards  of  considerable  size. 
This  remedy  acts  by  destroying  the  adult  beetles 
rather  than  the  larvae.  The  trees  should  be  sprayed 
three  or  four  times,  at  intervals  of  ten  days  or  two 
weeks,  beginning,  as  soon  as  the  blossoms  have  fallen, 
with  arsenate  of  lead  in  good  strength  or  with  Paris 
green  mixed  with  water  in  the  proportion  of  3  ounces 
to  40  to  50  gallons.  These  sprayings  will  also  destroy 
certain  other  insects  affecting  the  fruit,  although  it  is 
generally  supposed  that  they  will  not  kill  the  PLUM 
GOUGER — an  insect  related  to  the  curculios — which  is 
very  injurious  in  some  of  the  western  states.  The  best 
way  will  probably  be  to  combine  arsenate  of  lead  with 
the  Bordeaux  mixture  as  described  under  the  next 
heading,  and  so  fight  both  the  insect  and  fungus  pests 
at  the  same  time.  This  is  especially  desirable  because 
some  of  the  arsenites  alone  are  liable  to  injure  the 
foliage  when  a  series  of  applications  are  made,  though 
this  is  not  true  of  the  lead  arsenate. 

During  recent  years  trouble  has  been  experienced 
in  some  localities  because  of  the  FRUIT-BARK  BORER, 
an  insect  that  burrows  channels  beneath  the  bark. 
There  is  some  evidence  to  show  that  spraying  the 
trunks  and  larger  branches  with  the  combination  of 


7O  SPRAY  I  N(i     CROPS 

Bordeaux  mixture  and  Paris  green  will  prevent  such 
injury.  The  first  application  should  be  made  early  in 
the  spring,  and  others  follow  at  occasional  intervals 
until  July. 

FUNGUS     ENEMIES 

The  BROWN  ROT  OF  STONE-FRUITS  is  the  most 
serious  enemy  under  this  heading.  Fruit  affected  by 
this  disease  turns  brown  and  rots,  and  generally  de 
velops  on  the  skin  a  velvety  or  powdery  brown  coating. 
This  coating  consists  of  a  great  number  of  minute 
spores  fastened  together,  end  to  end.  If  one  of  these 
velvety  masses  be  shaken  over  a  glass  slide  and  the 
slide  then  put  under  a  microscope,  it  will  be  seen  that 
a  great  many  of  the  spores  have  separated  and  fallen 
off.  When  one  of  these  spores  lights  upon  a  green 
plum,  peach,  or  cherry,  and  a  drop  of  water  happens 
to  form  over  it,  it  sends  out  a  germinating  tube  which 
penetrates  the  skin  of  the  fruit,  and  once  inside  de- 
velops a  mass  of  mycelium,  disorganizing  the  tissues 
and  causing  rot.  Then  this  mycelium  develops  a  new 
mass  of  spores,  and  thus  the  fungus  propagates  itself. 
After  the  development  of  the  spores,  the  plums  or 
peaches  dry  up  and  hang  on  the  limbs  until  the  follow- 
ing season,  when  they  start  the  disease  again.  Even 
the  blossoms  are  often  attacked. 

The  first  step  towards  preventing  this  disease  is  to 
pick  off  and  burn  the  dry  and  mummied  plums  that 
hang  on  the  trees  over  winter.  These  carry  the  dis- 
ease through  cold  weather  and  start  it  again  in  the 
spring.  The  fruit  rots  worst  when  it  hangs  on  the 
tree  until  fully  ripe.  In  commercial  orchards  it  should 
be  picked  before  it  is  ripe.  Rotting  plums  during  the 
ripening  period  should  also  be  promptly  removed. 

During  summer  the  leaves  of  plums  and  cherries 
are  often  injured  by  the  PLUM  LEAF-BLIGHT  or 


THE      PLUM  71 

SHOT-HOLE  FUNGUS,  which  first  appears  in  the  shape 
of  small  dark  purple  spots  scattered  over  the  leaf. 
These  spots  soon  become  brown,  and  the  leaf  tissue 


Diseased  Plum  Leaf 

(After  Bailey) 


composing  them  is  dead.  This  dead  tissue  generally 
drops  out  of  the  leaf  in  course  of  a  few  weeks,  leaving 
circular  holes  resembling  shot  holes.  A  microscopic 
examination  of  the  under  surface  of  these  spots  gen- 


72  SPRAYING    CROPS 

erally  reveals  one  or  more  blackish  points  consist- 
ing of  the  fruiting  spores  of  the  fungus.  It  is  by 
means  of  these  that  it  passes  the  winter,  and  propa- 
gates itself.  The  affecjed  leaves  often  turn  yellow 
and  fall  off. 

Remedies — It  has  been  definitely  proven  that  these 
diseases  may  largely  be  prevented  by  spraying.  A 
treatment  similar  to  that  recommended  for  apple-scab, 
one  spraying  with  dilute  Bordeaux  mixture  before 
blossoms  open,  then  two  or  three  sprayings  with  Bor- 
deaux mixture  having  an  excess  of  lime  and  one  of 
the  arsenites  after  the  fruit  forms,  is  the  most  prom- 
ising treatment  for  both  insect  and  fungus  pests.  It 
may  be  necessary  to  make  one  or  two  late  sprayings 
with  a  carbonate  of  copper  solution  in  case  rot  sets  in. 
The  mummied  plums  should  be  picked  off  and  burned 
in  the  winter;  and  an  early  spring  spraying  with 
simple  solution  of  copper  sulphate,  applied  before  the 
buds  swell,  is  very  beneficial.  The  Japanese  plums  are 
very  sensitive  to  sprays,  but  they  are  less  liable  to 
these  diseases. 


THE    PEACH 


INSECT     ENEMIES 

The  SAN  JOSE  SCALE  is  one  of  the  most  destructive 
enemies  of  the  peach.  Winter  spraying  with  the  lime, 
salt  and  sulphur  wash  seems  to  be  the  most  effective 
remedy. 

The  PLUM  CURCULIO,  whose  life-history  has 
already  been  treated  of  on  page  4,  breeds  in  peaches, 
as  well  as  in  plums,  cherries,  apples,  and  other  fruits. 
It  is  especially  liable  to  injure  peaches  when  there  is  a 
failure  of  the  apple  crop.  Some  of  the  largest  grow- 
ers in  America  jar  their  peach  trees  systematically  to 
catch  the  curculios.  Apparently  it  is  still  a  question 
whether  the  insect  could  be  successfully  fought  by 
spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead.  Peach  foliage  is 
especially  liable  to  injury  by  some  of  the  arsenites. 

Peach  foliage  is  occasionally  attacked  by  the  RED- 
LEGGED  FLEA-BEETLE,  a  small  jumping  beetle  which 
may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead. 

There  are  two  distinct  species  of  aphides  or 
plant-lice  attacking  the  peach.  One  is  called  the 
PEACH  APHIS,  and  the  other  the  BLACK  PEACH  APHIS. 
The  latter  infests  the  roots  and  twigs  as  well  as  the 
leaves.  Both  species  are  soft,  blackish  little  creatures 
that  crowd  t6gether  on  the  foliage  and  twigs.  During 
the  summer  they  reproduce  viviparously.  Spraying 
with  fish-oil  soap,  tobacco  decoction,  or  kerosene  emul- 
sion, as  early  as  possible  after  the  pests  appear  in 
spring,  is  the  best  remedy.  The  time  to  reach  them 
easiest  is  when  the  buds  are  swelling  and  the  newly 
hatched  lice  are  on  the  bare  twigs. 


74 


SPRAYING    CROPS 


FUNGUS     ENEMIES 


It  often  happens  that  in  spring,  soon  after  the 
leaves  begin  to  expand,  the  foliage  of  peach  trees  be- 
comes curled  and  misshapen.  The  leaves  are  usually 


Peach  Leaf-curl] 

(After  Bailey) 


thickened  and  discolored,  and  fall  off  in  a  short  time. 
All  the  branches  may  be  attacked,  or  the  injury  may 
be  confined  to  only  a  part  of  the  tree.  When  the  dis- 
ease is  severe  the  young  fruits  fall  off,  and  the  crop 
for  the  year  is  destroyed.  The  defoliated  trees  soon 


THE     PEACH  75 

push  out  a  new  set  of  leaves,  but  too  late  to  repair  the 
damage  done  to  the  fruit  crop. 

This  PEACH  LEAF-CURL  is  most  injurious  during 
wet  springs.  It  often  ruins  the  peach  crop  over  large 
areas.  It  is  uncertain  in  its  attacks,  some  seasons 
doing  much  damage  and  others  comparatively  little. 

Remedies — It  has  been  repeatedly  demonstrated 
that  a  single  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  in  early 
spring  will  prevent  this  disease.  All  trees  should  be 
sprayed  with  a  good  strength  of  Bordeaux  mixture  at 
least  two  weeks  before  the  blossoms  open.  The  appli- 
cation should  be  so  thorough  as  to  cover  the  branches 
and  buds  all  over  the  tree.  In  all  cases  the  nozzle 
should  be  held  below  rather  than  above  the  part  of 
the  tree  being  treated  and  the  spray  thus  directed 
upward  will  in  falling  wet  the  upper  side  of  the 
horizontal  branches. 

The  BROWN  ROT,  already  discussed  as  a  plum 
disease  (page  70),  is  often  extremely  destructive  to 
peaches.  It  sometimes  attacks  the  trees  early  in 
spring,  causing  an  injury  to  the  twigs  and  blossoms 
called  blight,  and  again  infests  the  fruit  up  to  the 
time  of  ripening,  and  even  after  it  is  gathered. 

The  most  promising  remedial  measures  are  those 
of  picking  off  all  the  dry  peaches  hanging  on  the  tree 
during  winter,  and  then  spraying  early  'in  the  spring 
before  the  buds  begin  to  swell,  with  a  dilute  Bordeaux 
mixture,  not  more  than  2  pounds  copper  sulphate  to 
50  gallons  water,  which  may  often  be  repeated  to  ad- 
vantage just  before  the  blossoms  open.  Then  after  the 
blossom  petals  have  fallen  spray  twice  with  an  inter- 
val of  two  weeks  between.  Peach  foliage  is  very 
easily  injured,  and  care  should  be  taken  in  spraying 
it.  Two  or  three  pounds  more  lime  should  be  used  in 
the  Bordeaux  mixture  than  usual,  to  avoid  injury  to 
the  foliage. 


THE   PEAR 


INSECT    ENEMIES    OF    THE    FRUIT 

The  fruit  of  the  pear  is  attacked  by  both  the  COD- 
LING MOTH  and  the  PLUM  CURCULIO.  The  injury  of 
the  latter  causes  it  to  be  knotty,  gnarly,  and  one-sided, 
ruining  it  for  market  purposes.  Fortunately  the  in- 
juries of  both  may  largely  be  prevented  by  two  or 
three  sprayings  with  arsenate  of  lead  mixed  with 
water  at  the  rate  of  I  pound  to  50  gallons.  The  first 
application  should  be  made  as  soon  as  the  petals  have 
fallen,  and  the  others  at  intervals  of  ten  days  or 
two  weeks. 


Pear  Tree  Slug 

(After  Saunders) 

INSECT    ENEMIES    OF    THE    FOLIAGE 

The  leaves  of  pear,  cherry,  quince,  and  plum  trees 
are  frequently  attacked  during  June  and  July  by  a 
greenish-black,  slimy  slug  that  eats  the  upper  surface. 
This  is  the  PEAR-TREE  SLUG.  The  adult  is  a  four- 
winged  black  fly  that  deposits  eggs  in  the  leaf  early  in 
the  summer.  The  eggs  soon  hatch  into  larvae  which 
become  full-grown  in  four  or  five  weeks.  They  then 
shed  their  slimy  skins,  appearing  in  clean  yellow  on-es, 
and  soon  descend  to  the  ground,  which  they  enter  two 
or  three  inches,  and  pupate  in  oval  cocoons.  A  fort- 


THE    PEAR  77 

night  later  the  flies  emerge.  These  larvae  are  easily 
destroyed  by  spraying  with  hellebore  or  the  arsenites. 
In  a  number  of  the  eastern  states  a  small  insect, 
the  PEAR  PSYLLA,  has  recently  caused  serious  damage 
by  sucking  the  sap  from  the  leaves.  The  insects  pass 
the  winter  as  adults,  and  in  early  spring  deposit  eggs 
on  the  bark,  especially  about  the  buds.  About  a  fort- 
night later  they  hatch  into  young — called  nymphs — 
which  suck  the  sap  from  the  petioles  of  the  leaves  and 
stems  of  the  young  fruit.  Recent  experiments  have 
shown  that  the  young  nymphs  may  easily  be  destroyed 
by  spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion. 


Pear  Psylla 

Magnified.     (After  Slingerland) 

FUNGUS     ENEMIES 

THE  PEAR  LEAF-BLIGHT  is  the  most  destructive 
fungous  disease  of  the  pear  for  which  the  spraying 
machine  may  be  successfully  used.  It  occurs  both  on 
the  foliage  and  fruit ;  on  the  former  causing  small, 
discolored  spots,  and  on  the  latter  producing  a  very 
injurious  cracking  of  the  skin.  It  appears  soon  after 
the  leaves  develop,  in  the  shape  of  small  dull-red  spots 
on  the  upper  surface ;  then  the  lower  surface  becomes 
spotted,  and  the  spots  gradually  change  to  a  dark 


78  SPRAYING     CROPS 

brown  color  with  black  specks  in  the  middle.  The 
affected  portions  enlarge,  and  finally  the  whole  leaf 
becomes  diseased  and  falls  off.  The  red  spots  also 
appear  upon  the  fruit  ;*the  skin  becomes  much  rough- 
ened and  finally  splits  open  in  long  cracks. 

Remedies — Spray  twice  with  the  50  or  6o-gallon 
formula  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  applying  first  about 
one  month  after  the  blossoms  fall,  and  again  a  month 
later.  If  more  than  two  applications  of  the  Bordeaux 
mixture  are  made  after  blooming  there  is  danger  of 


Quince  Leaf  Blighir 

giving  the  fruit  a  russet  appearance.  In  case  of  early 
pears  only  one  application  should  be  made  after 
blooming.  If  late  applications  are  made  the  copper 
carbonate  or  some  similar  fungicide  should  be  used. 
The  effect  of  treatment  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  as 
shown  in  one  of  Mr  Galloway's  experiments,  is  illus- 
trated on  page  134. 

By  adding  an  arsenical  to  the  Bordeaux  mixture, 
both  insect  and  fungus  injuries  will  be  prevented. 

The  PEAR  SCAB  is  a  disease  very  similar  to  apple 
scab,  the  fungus,  in  fact,  being  believed  by  many  bot- 


THE    PEAR  79 

anists  to  be  the  same  species.  At  any  rate,  the  chief 
points  in  the  life-history  and  remedial  treatment  are  the 
same  as  for  the  apple  disease.  Spray  with  dilute 
Bordeaux  mixture,  first  as  soon  as  fruit  buds  open ; 
second  just  before  blooming;  third  as  soon  as  blossoms 
fall,  and  fourth  about  three  weeks  later. 

Care  should  be  taken  not  to  apply  the  Bordeaux 
mixture  too  late  in  the  season.  Early  varieties  should 
have  but  one  spraying  with  this  mixture  after  the  fruit 
"sets,"  and  late  varieties  but  two.  Where  additional 
applications  are  needed,  use  the  copper  carbonate 
solution. 

Pear  trees,  especially  older  ones  in  southern  lati- 
tudes, as  well  as  apple  trees,  are  often  largely  covered 
with  LICHENS  of  various  kinds.  Recent  experiments 
by  Mr  M.  B.  Waite  show  that  these  are  destroyed  by 
spraying  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture. 

The  quince  is  subject  to  the  leaf -blight  above 
discussed  as  a  pear  pest,  and  to  various  other  diseases. 
As  a  general  rule,  it  should  receive  treatment  similar 
to  that  given  the  pear,  although  a  larger  number  of 
sprayings  seem  to  be  necessary. 


THE  CHERRY 

INSECT    ENEMIES    OF    THE    FRUIT 

The  PLUM  CURCULIO,  which  has  already  been  dis- 
cussed under  The  Plum  (page  69),  is  also  exceedingly 
injurious  to  cherries.  The  latter,  however,  usually  do 
not  fall  off  when  infested  by  the  curculio  larvae,  but 
remain  on  the  tree  until  the  fruit  ripens.  The  remedial 
measures  suggested  in  connection  with  the  plum  are 
equally  applicable  to  this  fruit. 

Some  varieties  of  cherries,  especially  the  early 
ones,  are  very  susceptible  to  injury  by  arsenites. 
Arsenate  of  lead  seems  to  be  the  safest  poison  to  use 
on  them.  Do  not  spray  early  varieties  more  than 
twice,  or  late  ones  more  than  three  times. 

INSECT     ENEMIES     OF     THE     FOLIAGE 

The  twigs  and  under  surface  of  the  leaves  of 
cherry  trees  are  frequently  thickly  infested  during  May 
and  June  by  small,  shining  black  plant-lice,  that  suck 
out  the  sap  and  deform  the  leaves.  This  insect  is  the 
CHERRY  APHIS.  It  winters  over  on  the  twigs  in  the 
egg  state.  Early  in  spring  the  eggs  hatch  into  young 
aphides  that  insert  their  tiny  sap-sucking  beaks  into  the 
unfolding  leaves.  In  a  week  or  ten  days  they  become 
full-grown,  and  give  birth  to  young  lice,  which  soon 
develop  and  repeat  the  process.  In  this  way  they 
increase  with  marvelous  rapidity.  Late  in  June  or 
early  in  July  they  leave  the  cherry,  migrating  to  some 
other  plant.  Here  they  develop  through  the  summer, 
and  in  autumn  a  winged  brood  again  appears  and 


THE     CHERRY  8 1 

migrates  back  to  the  cherry.  These  migrants  give 
birth  to  young  that  develop  into  egg-laying  females, 
which  deposit  small,  oval,  shining  black  eggs  upon 
the  twigs. 

Remedy — Spray  with  kerowater,  kerosene  emul- 
sion or  whale-oil  soap.  This  can  be  done  most  easily 
and  effectively  early  in  spring,  when  the  newly-hatched 
lice  are  crowded  upon  the  bursting  buds. 

The  PEAR-TREE  SLUG,  which  has  already  been 
discussed  as  a  pear  insect,  is  probably  as  destructive 
to  cherry  foliage  as  to  that  of  the  pear.  Its  life-history 
on  the  two  fruits  is  similar,  and  the  remedies  are  the 
same  in  both  cases. 

FUNGUS     ENEMIES 

The  cherry  is  subject  to  much  the  same  fungous 
diseases  that  the  plum  is.  The  leaves  are  attacked  by 
the  LEAF  BLIGHT,  and  the  fruit  by  BROWN  ROT.  The 
remedial  measures  already  suggested  for  these  diseases 
are  applicable  here. 


PART  II 

SPRAYING    SMALL    FRUITS    AND 
NURSERY    STOCK 


Strawberry  Leaf  Affected  with  Blight 

(After  Garman) 


Spraying  Small  Fruits  and  Nursery  Stock 


THE  STRAWBERRY 

INSECT     ENEMIES     OF    THE     FOLIAGE 

The  transformations  of  the  STRAWBERRY  SLUG 
have  been  well  represented  by  Dr  Riley  in  the  figure 
on  page  86.  The  four-winged  fly  (3)  appears  in 
spring,  and  deposits  its  eggs  within  the  tissues  of  the 
leaf  or  stem.  The  larvae  feed  upon  the  leaf,  gnawing 
small,  circular  holes  at  first.  They  develop  in  five  or 
six  weeks  into  pale  green  worms  (4,  6)  about  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  long.  The  larvae  now  go  slightly 
beneath  the  soil  surface,  and  there  they  form  cocoons 
(7)  within  which  they  change  to  the  pupa  state  (i,  2), 
and  later  emerge  as  flies.  In  the  southern  states  there 
are  two  broods  each  season,  while  at  the  north  there 
appears  to  be  but  one. 

Remedies — On  the  non-fruiting  plantations  this 
pest  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  or  dusting  with 
hellebore  or  arsenate  of  lead.  On  fruiting  plantations 
this  method  may  be  used  in  localities  where  a  second 
brood  of  larvae  appears  after  the  fruit  is  gathered. 

The  STRAWBERRY  LEAF-ROLLER  is  a  small,  brown- 
ish caterpillar  that  folds  the  leaflets  of  the  strawberry 
by  bringing  the  upper  surfaces  together  and  fastening 
them  by  silken  cords,  and  feeds  upon  their  substance 
till  they  look  brown  and  scorched.  It  hatches  from 
eggs  laid  in  spring  upon  the  strawberry  plants  by  a 
small  reddish-brown  moth.  The  larva  attains  its  full 


86 


SPRAYING    CROPS 


growth  in  June,  when  it  is  nearly  half  an  inch  long,  of 
a  brown  or  greenish  color,  with  a  shining  yellowish- 
brown  head.  It  pupates  within  the  rolled  leaf,  and 
about  midsummer  emerges  as  a  moth.  These  moths 
deposit  eggs  for  a  second  brood,  that  feed  upon  the 
leaves  late  in  summer,  changing  to  pupae  early  in 
autumn;  and,  passing  the  winter  in  that  condition, 
emerge  as  moths  the  following  spring. 


Strawberry  Slug 

i,  a,  pupa;  3,  3,  fly;  4,  6,  larvae;  7,  cocoon;  8,  antenna;  9,  egg,  magnified 
(After  Riley) 

Remedies — Mow  the  field  soon  after  the  crop  is 
gathered,  and  after  leaving  it  a  day  or  two  to  become 
dry,  burn  it  over.  This  destroys  the  leaf-rollers  as  well 
as  several  other  kinds  of  insects,  and  the  spores  of  fun- 
gous diseases.  Scatter  a  little  straw  over  the  field 
where  the  leaves  are  not  thick  enough  to  burn  well. 
The  plants  will  not  be  damaged,  but  will  soon  send  up 
a  new  lot  of  leaves  that  will  grow  rapidly,  and  be  free 
from  insect  and  fungus  attack.  If  for  any  reason  this 
method  is  not  desirable,  the  insects  of  the  second 


THE     STRAWBERRY  87 

brood  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  or  dusting  the 
plants  in  August  with  some  poisonous  insecticide. 

The  foliage  of  strawberries  is  also  attacked  by  cer- 
tain STRAWBERRY  LEAF-BEETLES,  the  parents  of  the 
STRAWBERRY  ROOT-WORMS.  On  young  non-fruiting 
plantations,  and  on  fruiting  plantations  after  the  crop 
is  gathered,  these  insects  may  be  destroyed  by  spray- 
ing with  an  arsenical  poison. 

FUNGUS     ENEMIES 

The  STRAWBERRY  LEAF-BLIGHT  or  RUST  is  the 
most  destructive  fungus  enemy  of  this  fruit.  "The 
presence  of  the  blight  fungus,"  says  Professor  H. 
Carman,  "is  first  marked  by  the  appearance  of  small 
brown  spots,  varying  from  one-sixteenth  to  one-eighth 
inch.  As  they  become  abundant  the  spots  fuse,  form- 
ing extensive  brown  areas,  and  finally  occupy  the  whole 
leaf.  Eventually  most  spots  show  at  the  upper  side  of 
the  leaves  a  rim  of  dull  purple  of  varying  width. 
Towards  fall  this  change  in  the  color  of  the  leaf  is 
more  prevalent.  If  one  of  the  spots  be  cut  through 
with  a  pair  of  fine  scissors,  the  leaf  will  be  found,  at 
the  point  where  the  spot  is  formed,  much  thinner  than 
elsewhere,  because  of  the  killing  and  drying  out  of 
its  substance.  Examined  under  a  microscope,  the 
fungus  may  now  be  found  to  have  pushed  through  the 
tissues  of  the  leaf,  and  to  have  formed  all  over  the 
brown  central  region  of  the  spot,  but  most  abundantly 
at  its  margins,  small  whitish  tufts,  looking  like  micro- 
scopic shrubs.  These  are  the  fruiting  parts  of  the 
parasite,  and  are  made  up  of  numerous  threads,  each 
bearing  at  its  summit  a  long  jointed  spore.  As  these 
latter  ripen  they  are  set  free,  and  are  scattered  upon 
fresh  leaves  by  winds  and  rains,  to  germinate  there, 
push  into  the  leaves,  and  form  new  spots."  The  fun- 


88  SPRAYING    CROPS 

gus  is  propagated  by  these  long  spores  throughout  the 
summer,  but  in  autumn  the  threads  of  mycelium  ''form 
solid  tissue-like  masses  in  the  dead  parts  of  the  spots," 
which  finally  appear  at  tne  surface  as  small  black  dots. 
By  means  of  these  dots  or  nodules  the  fungus  passes 
the  winter.  A  leaf  affected  by  this  disease  is  repre- 
sented on  page  84. 


Strawberry  Leaf  Folded  by  Leaf-roller 

(After  Garman) 

Remedies — During  July  and  August  spray  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  or  ammoniacal  solution  of  copper 
carbonate,  at  intervals  of  two  weeks.  Try  mowing 
and  burning  foliage  soon  after  the  fruit  is  gathered, 
and  then  spray  as  just  directed.  Mowing  and  burning 
at  this  time,  without  subsequent  spraying,  is  believed 
to  increase  rather  than  diminish  the  blight,  at  least 


THE     STRAWBERRY  89 

southward;  but  mowing  and  burning  may  often  be 
done  to  good  advantage,  at  least  in  southerly  latitudes, 
in  autumn.  On  the  whole  the  most  satisfactory 
method  of  keeping  strawberry  enemies  in  check  is  by 
frequent  renewals  of  the  plantation. 


THE  CURRANt  AND  GOOSEBERRY 


INSECT    ENEMIES    OF    THE    FOLIAGE 

The  most  destructive  insect  enemy  of  currant 
foliage  is  the  IMPORTED  "CURRANT  WORM.  Early  in 
spring  four-winged  saw-flies  deposit  rows  of  small, 
whitish,  glassy  eggs  on  the  principal  veins  of  the 
under  side  of  the  lower  leaves.  In  about  ten  days  the 
small  worms  hatch  and  eat  circular  holes  in  the  leaf. 
At  first  these  larvae  are  whitish  in  color ;  they  moult  at 
short  intervals,  first  changing  to  green,  then  to  green 
with  numerous  black  spots,  and  at  last  back  again  to  a 
plain  light  green,  with  a  tinge  of  yellow  at  the  sides 
and  ends.  The  full-grown  larvae  descend  to  the 
ground,  where  they  spin  tough  brown  cocoons  beneath 
the  leaves  and  rubbish,  within  which  they  change  to 
pupae.  From  these  cocoons  the  flies  emerge  early  in 
summer,  to  lay  eggs  for  a  second  brood,  which  passes 
the  winter  within  the  cocoons. 

Remedy — Spray  with  hellebore — I  ounce  to  3 
gallons  water — as  soon  as  holes  appear  in  lower  leaves. 
Spray  again  ten  days  later.  Or  spray  with  arsenites 
as  soon  as  the  leaves  expand,  but  never  after  the 
fruit  sets. 

Currant  leaves  are  often  specked  with  white  by 
the  CURRANT  LEAF-HOPPER,  a  small,  pale-green  insect, 
one-tenth  inch  long,  that  lives  on  the  under  side  and 
sucks  the  sap.  The  chief  damage  is  done  by  the  first 
brood,  the  insects  leaving  the  bushes  in  early  summer, 
probably  preferring  at  this  time  the  more  succulent 
foliage  of  other  plants. 


THE    CURRANT     AND    GOOSEBERRY  9! 

Remedies — Spray  forcibly  with  kerowater,  or 
kerosene  emulsion,  pyrethrum  or  insect-powder — I 
ounce  to  3  gallons  water ;  or  with  tobacco  decoction. 
Begin  early,  before  the  insects  get  their  wings. 

The  foliage  on  the  tips  of  currant  and  gooseberry 
stems  is  often  blighted  in  spring  by  the  FOUR-LINED 
LEAF-BUG,  a  small  insect  represented  natural  size  and 


Currant  Worms  Eating  Leaves 

(After  Riley) 

magnified  on  page  92.  The  young  appear  early  in 
spring  and  suck  the  sap  from  the  unfolding  leaves, 
causing  them  to  wilt  and  appear  blighted  as  in  the 
picture  on  page  93. 

Mr  M.  V.  Slingertand,  who  has  studied  this  pest 
thoroughly,  finds  that  its  eggs  are  laid  in  currant  stems 
and  pass  the  winter  there.  Consequently  pruning  the 
stems  between  September  and  April — burning  the  por^ 
tions  cut  off — will  be  a  partial  preventive ;  and  spray- 
ing with  kerosene  emulsion  early  in  the  season,  when 


92  SPRAYING   CROPS 

the  insects  are  immature,  will  destroy  many  of  them. 
The  only  other  remedy  suggested  is  that  of  jarring  the 
pests  into  pans  containing  kerosene  and  water. 

The  CURRANT  Apfhs  is  a  small,  yellowish  insect 
found  on  the  under  sides  of  curled  and  blistered  cur- 
rant leaves  early  in  summer.  Such  leaves  are  generally 
tinged  with  reddish  above.  The  insects  apparently 
migrate  to  some  other  plant  during  the  summer, 
returning  to  the  currant  in  autumn,  and  depositing 
small,  black  eggs  upon  the  stems,  especially  about 
the  buds. 


Fou  r= lined  Leaf=bug 

Magnified  and  natural  size.    (After  Slingerland) 

Remedies — On  account  of  the  deformed  leaves, 
these  insects  are  difficult  to  reach  with  insecticides. 
Spray  with  kerowater  or  kerosene  emulsion  or  tobacco 
decoction  quite  early  in  the  season,  before  the  foliage 
has  expanded. 

FUNGUS     ENEMIES 

For  many  years  it  has  been  impracticable  to  grow 
foreign  varieties  of  gooseberries  in  the  United  States, 


THE    CURRANT    AND    GOOSEBERRY 


93 


on  account  of  the  attacks  of  the  GOOSEBERRY  MILDEW. 
According  to  Dr  B.  D.  Halsted,  this  mildew  ''first 
makes  its  appearance  upon  the  young  half-grown 
leaves,  and  the  unfolding  terminal  bud  of  the  shoot. 
In  its  early  stage  it  has  a  cobwebby  appearance,  which 
soon  becomes  white  and  powdery  from  the  develop- 
ment of  the  light  summer  spores.  Soon  after  this, 
thin  patches  of  the  same  character  may  be  found  upon 
the  forming  berries.  Usually  one  side  is  more  attacked 


Currant  Leaves  Blighted  by  Leaf-bug 
(After  Slingerland) 

than  the  other,  and  as  the  berry  continues  to  grow 
it  becomes  one-sided  or  curved,  because  the  fungus 
retards  the  development  upon  the  infested  side.  If 
the  berry  is  entirely  covered,  its  further  development 
is  generally  checked.  Later  in  the  season  the  leaves, 
and  especially  their  petioles,  and  the  young  stems 
bearing  them,  turn  to  a  rusty-brown  color,  and  become 
thickly  coated  with  the  fungus.  The  berries  at  the 


94  SPRAYING     CROPS 

same  time  are  covered  with  brown  patches  of  mycelium, 
which  may  readily  be  peeled  off  from  the  smooth  skin 
of  the  fruit." 

Remedies — Spray  with  a  solution  of  potassium 
sulphide  (liver  of  sulphur)  at  the  rate  of  one-half 
ounce  to  I  gallon  water.  Begin  as  soon  as  the  leaves 
commence  unfolding,  and  repeat  the  application  at 
intervals  of  eighteen  to  twenty  days.  The  sulphide 
dissolves  more  readily  in  hot  than  in  cold  water. 
This  treatment  has  proven  entirely  efficacious  for  a 
number  of  years  at  the  New  York  experiment  station. 
Early  in  the  season  the  Bordeaux  mixture  may  be 
used  instead  of  the  sulphide  if  more  convenient,  and 
it  is  desirable  to  spray  with  Bordeaux  mixture  after 
the  fruit  is  gathered,  to  prevent  the  various  spot- 
diseases,  that  often  cause  the  foliage  to  drop  off  late 
in  summer. 

General  Treatment — One  of  the  most  successful 
currant  growers  in  New  England  gives  his  bushes 
three  sprayings  each  season,  namely :  first,  with  copper 
sulphate  solution  in  early  spring  before  buds  open; 
second,  with  Paris  green  as  soon  as  leaves  come  out ; 
third,  with  Bordeaux  mixture  and  Paris  green  after 
fruit  is  picked. 


THE    GRAPE 


INSECT    ENEMIES    OF    THE    FOLIAGE 

The  GRAPE-VINE  FLEA-BEETLE  is  a  small,  steel- 
blue  beetle  that  is  often  very  destructive  to  grape-vines. 
As  soon  in  spring  as  the  buds  swell  the  beetles  attack 
them,  and  continue  feeding  for  three  or  four  weeks, 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  time  depositing  small, 
orange-yellow  eggs  in  clusters  on  the  under  sides  of 
the  leaves.  The  eggs  hatch  into  small,  dark-colored 
larvae  that  gnaw  irregular  holes  in  the  leaves.  When 
fully  grown  (three  or  four  weeks  after  hatching),  they 
are  about  three-tenths  of  an  inch  long,  brown  in  color, 
with  six  legs,  and  four  or  five  black  dots  on  the  back 
of  each  ring  or  segment  of  the  body.  The  head  is 
black,  and  there  are  numerous  hairs  on  the  body. 
They  now  enter  the  soil,  pupate,  and  a  few  weeks 
later  emerge  as  beetles,  which  feed  upon  the  foliage 
and  lay  eggs  for  a  second  brood  of  larvae. 

Remedy — Spray  with  arsenites  as  soon  as  beetles 
appear  in  spring;  or  else  with  the  arsenited  Bordeaux 
mixture.  Repeat  in  ten  to  fourteen  days  if  necessary. 

FUNGUS     ENEMIES 

The  BLACK  ROT  of  grapes  has  long  been  recog- 
nized as  the  most  destructive  fungous  disease  which 
American  vineyardists  have  encountered.  Generalh 
the  fungus  first  appears  in  the  shape  of  round,  reddish- 
brown  spots  on  the  grape  leaves.  About  a  fortnight 
later  the  attack  on  the  berries  will  be  noticed.  The 
effect  on  these  is  most  disastrous ;  as  the  mycelium 
develops  among  the  cells  of  the  fruit  the  berries  stop 


96  SPRAYING    CROPS 

growing,  and  finally  become  disorganized,  shapeless, 
juiceless  masses,  shriveled  to  one-half  their  proper 
size  and  fit  only  to  develop  the  spores  of  the  destroy- 
ing fungus.  And  the/  do  produce  these  spores,  which 
are  massed  together  in  little  black  pustules  scattered 
over  the  surface  of  the  withered  skin. 

This  Black  Rot  fungus  is  most  destructive  in 
southern  latitudes.  As  far  north  as  northern  Ohio  arid 
western  New  York  it  is  much  less  virulent  than  in 
Tennessee  or  the  Carolinas.  Like  most  fungous  dis- 
eases it  develops  with  greater  rapidity  during  damp, 
hot  weather,  or  when  nights  with  heavy  dews  alternate 
with  hot  days. 

Remedies — Spray  with  the  copper  sulphate  solu- 
tion before  the  buds  start,  then  with  the  Bordeaux 
mixture  four  or  five  times,  making  the  first  application 
when  the  first  leaves  are  half-grown ;  the  second,  when 
the  fruit  has  set,  repeating  the  later  sprayings  at  inter- 
vals of  about  fifteen  days.  If  disease  persists  so  later 
sprayings  are  necessary,  substitute  the  ammoniacal 
solution  of  copper  carbonate  for  the  last  one  or  two 
sprayings,  to  avoid  spotting  the  fruit. 

An  account  of  the  development  of  the  DOWNY 
MILDEW  or  BROWN  ROT  of  grapes  has  already  been 
given  in  the  Introduction  (pages  7-9).  This  disease 
has  been,  in  years  past,  extremely  destructive  over  a 
wide  area ;  and  it  attacks  disastrously  both  the  foliage 
and  fruit.  In  southern  latitudes  it  is  said  to  be  most 
injurious  to  the  former. 

Remedies — The  Bordeaux  mixture  is  a  practical 
and  efficient  preventive  of  this  disease.  Spray  first  a 
week  or  ten  days  before  the  vine  blossoms ;  second, 
as  soon  as  the  berries  are  well  set;  and  third,  about 
three  weeks  later.  In  very  wet  seasons  it  may  be 
desirable  to  spray  a  fourth  time,  but  this  is  seldom 
done. 


THE  RASPBERRY 


INSECT    ENEMIES    OF    THE    FOLIAGE 

The  RASPBERRY  SLUG  is  the  larva  of  a  four- 
winged  black  fly  with  a  reddish  abdomen,  which 
deposits  eggs  in  the  leaf  during  spring.  They  hatch 
into  small,  whitish  worms  that  feed  upon  the  tender 
foliage,  and  in  a  few  weeks  become  full-grown.  They 
are  then  1/4  inch  long,  of  a  dark  green  color,  and 
have  the  body  thickly  covered  with  spinose  tubercles. 
The  slugs  now  descend  to  the  ground,  and  construct 
rather  firm  cocoons  slightly  beneath  the  soil  surface. 
They  remain  in  these  cocoons  until  spring,  when  they 
come  forth  as  flies. 

Remedy — Spray  the  infested  bushes  with  pow- 
dered hellebore.  Use  from  one-half  to  one  pound  of 
hellebore  to  50  gallons  of  water,  and  apply  forcibly, 
as  soon  as  the  worms  appear. 

FUNGUS     ENEMIES 

The  ANTHRACNOSE  or  CANE-RUST  of  the  raspberry 
is  one  of  the  most  vexatious  diseases  with  which  the 
fruit-grower  has  to  contend.  Infested  canes  are  char- 
acterized by  having  numbers  of  peculiar,  grayish, 
depressed  spots  upon  the  surface,  the  spots  usually 
having  a  dark  purple  margin.  This  injury  is  accom- 
panied by  a  splitting  or  cracking  of  the  bark,  which 
becomes  deeper  as  the  cane  ripens,  and  finally  extends 
nearly  to  the  pith.  The  spores  are  developed  usually 
in  the  central  portions  of  the  spots,  appearing  to  the 
unaided  eye  as  yellowish  elevations.  Canes  so  at- 
tacked become  dwarfed  and  worthless. 


98  SPRAYING     CROPS 

Remedy — The  raspberry  is  very  sensitive  to  the 
corrosive  action  of  fungicides,  and  it  must  be  sprayed 
with  care.  Recent  experiments  at  the  Ohio  Station 
indicate  that  the  dilute  liordeaux  mixture  may  be  used 
to  advantage  against  this  disease,  although  it  is  not  a 
complete  remedy.  Apply  once  before  the  leaves  come 
out,  and  two  or  three  times  afterward,  though  not  after 
the  blossoms  open.  "Care  should  be  taken  to  direct 
the  spray  to  the  young  growth,  and  avoid  the  old  canes 
after  the  first  application."  In  Canada  the  recom- 
mended treatment  is  to  spray  with  copper  sulphate 
solution  before  buds  burst,  and  with  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture ten  or  fifteen  days  after  leaves  open,  repeating 
the  latter  soon  after  the  old  canes  are  cut  out. 


NURSERY   STOCK 

Nursery  trees  are  particularly  liable  to  attack  by 
the  San  Jose  scale  and  others  similar  to  it.  The  use 
of  the  lime,  salt  and  sulphur  wash  and  fumigation 
of  dormant  stock  are  the  standard  remedies.  The 
leaves  of  young  apple  trees  are  frequently  rolled 
together  at  the  tips  of  the  terminal  twigs  by  a 
greenish-yellow,  slightly  hairy  worm  about  an  inch 
long.  This  is  the  LESSER  APPLE  LEAF-ROLLER.  Its 
life-history  is  as  follows  :  The  eggs  are  laid  in  spring 
on  the  leaves  of  apple  and  other  plants,  the  larvae  soon 
hatching  to  devour  the  foliage,  some  of  which  they 
roll  into  a  protective  covering.  Here  they  feed  for 
about  a  month,  when  they  pupate  within  the  folded 
leaves,  and  a  week  or  so  later  emerge  as  small  orange- 
yellow  moths ;  these  moths  lay  eggs  for  another  brood 
of  larvae,  the  imagos  from  which  appear  in  August, 
being  also  of  the  same  orange  color.  These  in  turn 
lay  eggs  for  a  third  brood  of  worms,  which  emerge 
during  October  as  glistening  reddish-gray  moths, 
which  pass  the  winter  in  rubbish  heaps  and  fence 
corners  and  deposit  eggs  the  following  spring. 

One  often  finds  during  winter,  upon  the  twigs  of 
nursery  trees,  masses  of  dry  brown  leaves,  which,  when 
pulled  apart,  are  seen  to  surround  a  long,  tubular, 
horn-like  case.  These  cases  contain  a  brownish  worm 
or  caterpillar,  .about  half  an  inch  long.  This  is  the 
LEAF-CRUMPLER,  and  it  often  becomes  one  of  the  most 
injurious  of  nursery  pests.  The  parent  is  a  small 
grayish  moth  (d)  that  deposits  its  eggs  during  June 
and  July  on  apple,  quince  and  other  trees.  These  eggs 
soon  hatch  into  small  brownish  worms  that  construct 
tubular,  silken  cases  (a)  within  which  they  remain 


100 


SPRAYING     CROPS 


concealed  when  not  eating.  As  they  grow  larger  they 
draw  about  the  openings  of  their  abodes  many  par- 
tially eaten  leaves,  so  that  by  autumn  there  is  quite  a 
bunch  surrounding  eaA  case  (b).  At  the  approach 
of  cold  weather  the  cases  are  attached  to  twigs  by 
silken  threads,  and  thus  the  winter  is  passed.  As  soon 
as  the  leaves  appear  the  larvae  attack  them,  frequently 
eating  out  the  flower  buds  as  well.  They  feed  until 
June,  when  they  pupate  within  the  cases.  A  fortnight 
later  the  moths  emerge. 


Lesser  Leaf = roller 

a,  larva;  l>,  pupa;  c,  moth;  d,  rolled  leaf 
(After   Kiley) 

•The  APPLE  LEAF-SKELETONIZER  .s  a  brownish  or 
greenish  larva,  which  spins  a  web  upon  the  upper  sur 
face  of  the  leaf,  and  eats  the  parenchyma,  giving  the 
foliage  a  scorched  appearance.  The  larvae  hatch  from 
eggs  laid  late  in  spring  by  a  little  moth,  and  as  they 
grow  older  they  spin  a  slight  protective  silken  web  on 
the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  beneath  which  they  feed. 
When  full  grown  (a)  they  vary  from  an  olive  or  pale 
green  color  to  brown,  are  about  half  an  inch  long,  and 
have  four  black  shining  tubercles  on  the  back,  just 
behind  the  head.  About  midsummer  they  pupate  in 


NURSERY    £ 


slight  cocoons,  and  two  weeks  later  the  moths  emerge. 
Eggs  are  laid  by  these  moths  for  the  second  brood  of 
larvae,  which  when  full-grown  hibernate  in  thin 
cocoons. 

Remedies — All  three  of  these  pests  are  open  to 
destruction   by   spraying  with   arsenites.      In   regions 


Leaf =cru  nip  ler 

a,  larval  case;  b,  larval  case  with  dead  leaves;  c,  front  part  of  larva;  d,  moth, 
magnified.    (After  Riley) 

where  the  Powdery  Mildew  is  injurious  as  well  as 
these,  a  combination  treatment  may  be  employed, 
adding  five  or  six  ounces  of  Paris  green  to  each  barrel 
of  Bordeaux  mixture.  Where  fungicide  treatment  is 
not  necessary,  spray  with  arsenites  and  lime,  adding 
the  lime  to  prevent  injury  to  the  young  and  tender 
foliage,  unless  arsenate  of  lead  is  used,  as  explained 
in  the  Introduction,  whenever  either  of  the  insects 
threaten  injury, — the  earlier  the  better. 


1O2  SPRAYING    CROPS 

FUNGUS     ENEMIES 

There  are  at  least  three  fungous  diseases  of  young 
nursery  trees  to  prevent  which  spraying  pays.  They 
are:  (i)  the  PEAR  LEAF-BLIGHT,  which  affects  quince 
as  well  as  pear  stocks;  (2)  the  POWDERY  MILDEW, 
which  occurs  upon  apple  and  cherry,  and  (3)  the 
LEAF-BLIGHT  or  LEAF-SPOT  of  the  plum  and  cherry. 

According  to  Dr  B.  T.  Galloway,  the*  body  or  vege- 
tative system  of  the  PEAR  LEAF-BLIGHT  consists  of 


Leaf  ^skeleton  izer 

rt,  larva;  />,  part  of  hack,  magnified  to  show  markings;  c,  head  and  front  part 
of  larva,  magnified;  d,  moth,  magnified.    (After  Riley) 

very  minute,  short,  colorless  filaments,  which  grow 
between  and  through  the  delicate  cells  of  the  leaf, 
"destroying  all  the  latter  with  which  it  comes  in  con- 
tact, and  using  their  nourishment  for  building  up  its 
own  structure.  As  a  result  of  this  process,  the  leaf 
shows,  here  and  there  on  the  surface,  small,  more  or 
less  circular,  dark  brown  spots ;  these  spots  rapidly 
enlarge,  and  by  running  together  soon  cause  the  entire 
leaf  to  turn  brown  and  then  fall  off.  Before  the  latter 


NURSERY     STOCK 


103 


takes  place,  however,  a  close  examination  of  the  dis- 
eased spots  will  reveal  numerous  little  black  specks , 
these  contain  the  spores  or  reproductive  bodies  of  the 
fungus,  which  escape  by  rupturing  the  cuticle  of  the 


Spraying  for  Plum  Leaf  blight 

(After  Galloway) 


leaf  with  which  they  are  covered.  Under  proper  con- 
ditions of  moisture  and  heat  the  spores  germinate,  and 
if  this  takes  place  on  a  pear  leaf,  the  germ  tube  bores 
its  way  into  the  tissues,  soon  develops  into  colorless 
filaments,  like  those  already  described,  and  these  in 


IO4  SPRAYING    CROPS 

turn  give  rise  to  more  spores."  The  fungus  passes 
the  winter  by  means  of  the  late  summer  spores  which 
remain  attached  to  the  fallen  leaves. 

Remedy — "Spray  firet  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture 
when  the  leaves  are  about  two-thirds  grown ;  then  fol- 
low with  other  applications  of  the  same  preparation 
at  intervals  of  about  twelve  days,  until  five  or  six 
sprayings  in  all  have  been  made."  (Galloway.) 

The  fungus  of  the  APPLE  POWDERY  MILDEW  dif- 
fers materially  from  the  species  affecting  pear  leaves 
just  discussed.  "Its  vegetative  system/'  says  Dr  Gal- 
loway, "instead  of  growing  on  the  inside  of  the  host  is 
almost  wholly  external,  and  obtains  its  nourishment  by 
means  of  suckers  which  it  sends  into  the  cells  of  the 
leaf  or  stem  as  the  case  may  be.  It  covers  the  various 
parts  of  the  plant  with  a  grayish,  powdery,  meal-like 
growth — hence  the  name  Powdery  Mildew." 

Remedies — "Spray  the  seedlings  with  the  ammo- 
niacal  solution  or  copper  carbonate,  first  when  the  leaves 
are  about  half  grown,  and  thereafter  at  intervals  of 
twelve  days.  Following  this  plan  three  sprayings  will 
usually  be  made  before  budding,  and  at  least  two 
after  this  operation,  making  five  in  all."  (Galloway.) 
Or  the  Bordeaux  mixture  may  be  used. 

The  LEAF-BLIGHT  of  the  plum  and  cherry  may  be 
prevented  by  spraying  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture. 
Apply  first  when  the  leaves  are  one-third  grown. 
"Between  this  date  and  the  time  for  budding  three 
more  applications  should  be  made  at  as  nearly  regular 
intervals  as  possible.  Ten  days  or  two  weeks  after 
the  buds  are  inserted  make  the  fifth  application,  then 
follow  with  the  sixth  two  weeks  later."  The  effect  of 
spraying  plum  stocks  is  well  shown  in  the  picture  on 
page  103,  reproduced  from  the  Journal  of  Mycology. 
Be  sure  that  there  is  an  excess  of  lime  in  the  Bordeaux 
mixture. 


PART   III 

SPRAYING    SHADE    TREES,    ORNA- 
MENTAL PLANTS  AND    FLOWERS 


An  Outfit  for  Spraying  Shade  Trees 

(From  Connecticut  Experiment  Station) 


Spraying  Shade  Trees,  Ornamental 
Plants    and    Flowers 


SHADE   TREES 

INSECT    ENEMIES    OF    THE    FOLIAGE 

The  WOOLLY  MAPLE  BARK-LOUSE  is  often  one  of 
the  most  destructive  shade-tree  pests.  Its  presence  is 
shown  in  spring-  and  early  summer  by  the  occur- 
rence upon  the  twigs  of  a  brown,  circular,  leathery 
scale  about  l/\.  inch  in  diameter,  beneath  which  is  a 
peculiar  white,  fluffy,  cottony  mass.  In  the  spring 
there  may  be  found,  in  each  of  these  masses,  great 
numbers  (from  700  to  1000)  of  small,  white,  spherical 
eggs.  Early  in  summer  these  eggs  hatch  into  young- 
lice,  which  scatter  over  the  trees,  wandering  about  on 
the  twigs  and  leaves  for  a  few  days,  and,  finally,  fixing 
themselves  upon  the  lower  leaf  surface,  insert  their  tiny 
beaks  and  suck  out  the  sap.  They  remain  in  this  posi- 
tion several  weeks,  when  a  few  of  them  become  fully 
developed  winged  males.  These  mate  with  the  remain- 
der, which  are  females,  and  soon  die.  But  the  females 
remain  upon  the  leaves  until  nearly  time  for  the  latter 
to  fall  in  autumn,  when  they  desert  them  and  migrate 
to  the  twigs,  attaching  themselves  by  inserting  their 
beaks  into  the  bark.  Here  they  remain  until  spring, 
the  eggs  gradually  developing. 

Remedy — Spray  infested  trees  in  June,  when  the 
lice  have  just  hatched,  with  kerowater  or  kerosene 
emulsion. 


io8 


SPRAYING     CROPS 


The  twigs  of  deciduous  and  coniferous  trees  are 
often  infested  during  winter  by  small  bags  or  sacs 
(e)  suspended  from  the  leaves  or  branches.  If  one  of 
the  larger  of  these  bags  bC  cut  open,  there  will  be  found 
within  it  a  brown,  membranous  shell  (the  pupa-case  of 
the  moth)  filled  with  many  small,  yellow  eggs  (e).  In 
this  condition  the  BAG-WORM  or  BASKET-WORM  passes 
the  winter.  Late  in  spring  the  larvae  hatch,  and  form 


Bag=worm 

a,  larva;  t>,  male  pupa;  c,  female  moth;  dt  male  moth;  e,  bag- and  pupa- 
case  cut  open  to  show  eggs  :  _/,  full-grown  larva  with  bag;  g,  young  larvae  with 
their  conical  coverings.  (After  Riley) 

little  cases  of  fragments  of  leaves  fastened  together  by 
silken  threads.  Beneath  these  cases  (g)  they  feed 
upon  the  foliage,  enlarging  them  as  the  larvae  develop, 
and  during  later  life  using  bits  of  twigs  or  stems  in 
their  construction.  When  fully  developed,  the  worms 
descend  to  the  earth  by  means  of  silken  threads,  and 
crawl  about  until  they  reach  the  bases  of  other  trees, 
which  they  ascend.  This  is  the  way  the  species 


SHADE     TREES 


migrates.  The  larvae  pupate  within  the  cases,  and 
about  three  weeks  later  change  to  moths.  The  two 
sexes  of  the  moths  differ  greatly,  the  male  (d)  having 
well-developed  wings,  while  the  female  (c)  is  wingless. 
The  latter  deposits  her  eggs  in  the  empty  pupa-case 
from  which  she  has  emerged,  falls  to  the  ground, 
and  dies. 

Remedies — Spray  with  an  arsenical  poison  early 
in  summer  when  the  worms  are  young.  Pick  off  the 
cases  in  winter. 


White=marked  Tussock-moth 

a,  female  moth  on  cocoon;  b,   young  larva  hanging  by  thread 
d,  male  pupa  :  e,  male  moth.     (After  Riley) 


,  female  pupa; 


The  larvae  of  the  WHITE-MARKED  TUSSOCK-MOTH 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  our  caterpillars.  If  the 
trunks  or  larger  limbs  of  maple,  apple,  elm,  or  any 
other  of  the  trees  infested  by  this  insect,  be  examined 
in  autumn  or  winter,  one  may  find,  scattered  here  and 
there  upon  the  bark,  thin  gray  cocoons,  many  of  them 
being  covered  with  large  bunches  of  spherical  white 
eggs  fastened  together  by  a  protecting  froth-like  mass. 
In  May,  soon  after  the  leaves  come  out,  these  eggs 
hatch  into  small  caterpillars,  which  feed  upon  the 
foliage,  becoming  full-grown  in  six  or  seven  weeks. 
Their  general  color  is  bright  yellow,  with  head  and 
tubercles  on  rear  of  back  red,  and  four  cream-colored 


no 


SPRAYING     CROPS 


tufts  on  back.  About  the  middle  of  July  the  cater- 
pillars spin  thin,  whitish  cocoons  upon  the  bark,  and 
a  fortnight  later  come  forth  as  moths.  These  lay  eggs 
for  a  second  brood,  which  complete  their  transforma- 
tions before  winter  sets  in.  The  male  moth  differs 


I 


Apple  Leaf 

Denuded  by  young  Web-worms 


greatly  from  the  female  moth,  the  former  being  winged 
(e),  while  the  latter  is  wingless  (a).  The  female 
crawls  upon  the  top  of  the  cocoon  (a)  as  soon  as  she 
emerges  from  the  pupa  state,  where,  after  mating,  she 
deposits  her  eggs  in  a  single  mass  and  dies. 


SHADE     TREES  1 1 1 

Remedies — Spray  trees  as  soon  as  caterpillars  are 
noticed,  with  arsenate  of  lead  or  some  other  arsenical 
poison.  Pick  off  egg  cases  in  winter. 

The  work  of  few  insects  is  more  universally  known 
than  that  of  the  FALL  WEB- WORM.  Late  in  summer 
and  early  in  autumn  the  conspicuous,  unsightly  webs 
of  this  pest  may  be  seen  in  nearly  every  orchard  and 
hedgerow  over  a  large  portion  of  the  United  States. 
The  adult  is  a  pretty,  white  moth  (c),  which  deposits 
eggs  on  the  leaves  of  various  trees  early  in  summer. 


Fall  Web=worm 

a,  larva;  6,  pupa;  c,  moth.     (After  Riley) 

These  soon  hatch  into  young  caterpillars  that  begin 
at  once  to  spin  a  protective  web.  They  feed  upon  the 
parenchyma  of  the  foliage,  leaving  the  network  of 
veins,  and  grow  quite  rapidly,  enlarging  the  web  as 
they  develop.  The  full-grown  larvae  are  a  little  more 
than  an  inch  long,  with  the  body  densely  clothed  with 
yellowish  hairs.  They  now  leave  their  nests  and 
descend  to  the  ground,  where  they  spin  slight  silken 
cocoons  within  which  they  change  to  pupae. 

Remedies — It  is  an  easy  matter  to  cut  the  webs 
off  and  burn  or  crush  the  larvae.     The  pests  may  also 


Transformations  of  the  Him  leaf  Beetle 

(After  Kiley) 


SHADE    TREES  113 

be  destroyed  by  spraying  with  an  arsenical  poison  when 
the  larvae  are  young. 

During  recent  years  the  IMPORTED  ELM  LEAF- 
BEETLE  has  been  exceedingly  destructive  in  many  cities 
of  the  eastern  states,  to  that  most  beautiful  of  shade- 
trees,  the  elm.  The  eggs  (a)  are  laid  on  the  under  side 
of  the  leaf  in  two  or  three  rows.  In  about  a  week  the 
larvae  hatch  and  begin  eating  the  leaves,  causing  them 
to  look  as  if  riddled  with  fine  shot.  They  become 
fully  grown  (g)  in  two  or  three  weeks,  when  they 
descend  to  the  ground,  and  change  to  pupae  (/).  Ten 
days  later  the  perfect  beetles  (c,  natural  size;  k,  mag- 
nified) come  forth  and  eat  the  leaves,  although  the 
damage  done  by  the  insect  in  this  state  is  less  than 
that  done  by  larvae.  There  are  three  or  four  broods 
each  season,  and  the  beetles  pass  the  winter  in  hollow 
trees  and  under  old  leaves. 

Remedies — Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead  when  the 
eggs  are  being  laid,  in  order  to  kill  the  larvae  before 
they  have  done  any  damage.  The  addition  of  a  little 
flour  to  the  poison  mixture  seems  to  render  it  more 
effective.  To  reach  the  tops  of  high  trees  a  pump  of 
considerable  power  is  required.  In  July  destroy  the 
larvae  as  they  come  to  the  ground  to  pupate. 

An  excellent  discussion  of  shade-tree  insects  and 
methods  of  controlling  them  by  Dr  L.  O.  Howard  may 
be  found  in  the  yearbook  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  for  1895. 


THE   ROSE 


INSECT    ENEMIES    OF    THE    FOLIAGE 

The  ROSE  SLUG  is  the  young  or  larva  of  a  four- 
winged  saw-fly.  It  eats  the  pulp  of  the  leaves,  giving 
the  foliage  a  scorched  appearance.  The  eggs  are  laid 
singly  in  the  skin  of  the  leaf,  and  the  larvae  hatch  in 
about  a  fortnight.  They  become  full-grown  in  three 


Rose   Leaf  hopper 

a,  adult;  <5,  pupa;  magnified 

weeks ;  they  have  a  small,  round,  yellowish  head,  and 
a  green  body,  which  is  soft  and  nearly  transparent. 
Leaving  the  bushes  they  burrow  into  the  soil  an  inch 
or  two  and  make  oval  cocoons  of  silk  mixed  with  par- 
ticles of  earth.  They  remain  in  these  until  the  follow- 
ing season,  when  they  emerge  as  flies. 

Remedies — Spray     with     arsenate     of     lead     or 
hellebore. 


THE    ROSE  115 

The  ROSE  LEAF-HOPPER  is  a  small  whitish  insect, 
found  on  the  lower  surface  of  rose  leaves,  sucking  out 
the  cell  contents  and  giving  the  upper  surface  a  white- 
spotted  appearance.  The  adult  (a)  is  a  little  more  than 
i-io  inch  long,  with  a  yellowish- white  body,  and 
white  semi-transparent  wing  covers.  It  has  long  hind 
legs,  by  means  of  which  it  is  enabled  to  make  tremen- 
dous leaps  when  disturbed. 

Remedies — These  little  pests  are  much  easier  to 
destroy  before  they  are  fully  developed  than  after- 
wards. Spraying  or  dusting  with  pyrethrum,  or 


ft, 

Aphis 

a,  wingless  form,  magnified  ;  />,  winged  form,  magnified;  c,  same,  natural  size 
(After  Saunders) 

insect-powder,  is  a  simple  and  efficient  remedy. 
Tobacco,  in  the  form  either  of  a  powder  or  a  decoction, 
is  also  good ;  and  kerosene  either  in  mechanical  mix- 
ture or  in  emulsion  will  destroy  the  pests. 

FLOWERS     AND     POTTED     PLANTS 

Greenhouse  plants  are  often  seriously  injured  by 
minute,  reddish  mites  that  congregate  on  the  lower 
leaf  surface,  spinning  a  fine  protective  web  and  suck- 
ing out  the  juices  of  the  plants  through  their  tiny 


Il6  SPRAYING    CROPS 

beaks.  These  are  RED  SPIDERS.  They  multiply  be- 
neath their  silken  webs,  where  one  may  find  colonies 
of  individuals  (so  small  as  to  be  scarcely  visible  to  the 
naked  eye)  in  all  Stages  of  existence.  The  infested 
leaves  assume  a  yellowish  hue,  and  many  of  them 
finally  fall  off. 

Remedies — The  Red  Spider  flourishes  best  in  a 
dry  atmosphere.  It  is  seldom  troublesome  in  green- 
houses where  the  air  is  kept  saturated  with  moisture 
and  the  plants  are  sprayed  with  water  every  day.  In 
window  gardens  the  plants  should  be  sprayed  with 
water  or  soap-suds  every  day,  as  soon  as  they  show 
signs  of  the  presence  of  this  pest. 

There  are  many  different  species  of  APHIDES, 
PLANT-LICE,  or  "GREENFLIES,"  affecting  various  flow- 
ering-plants. But  all  are  quite  similar  in  life-history 
and  habits,  and  the  same  remedies  apply  to  each.  They 
all  multiply  with  marvelous  rapidity,  on  account  of 
their  habit  of  giving  birth  to  living  young  without  the 
presence  of  male  aphides.  They  mature  rapidly,  and 
obtain  food  by  inserting  their  pointed  beaks  into  the 
stem  or  leaf  and  sucking  out  the  sap.  There  are 
generally  two  forms  of  them,  one  being  winged 
(b,  c)  and  the  other  wingless  (a).  These  insects  are 
the  commonest  pests  of  the  flowering-plants. 

Remedies — Spray  with  strong  soap-suds  or 
kerosene  in  mechanical  mixture  or  emulsion,  fish-oil 
soap,  whale-oil  soap,  or  tobacco  decoction. 


PART  IV 

SPRAYING     VEGETABLES,     FIELD- 
CROPS    AND  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 


Transformations  of  the  Colorado  Potato-beetle 

(After  Riley) 


Spraying  Vegetables,  Field-Crops 
and    Domestic   Animals 


THE   POTATO 

INSECT    ENEMIES    OF    THE    FOLIAGE 

The  COLORADO  POTATO-BEETLE  deposits  its  orange- 
colored  eggs  (a)  in  masses,  varying  in  number  from 
a  dozen  to  fifty  or  more,  on  the  under  surface  of  the 
potato-leaf,  and  occasionally  also  upon  the  leaves  of 
grass,  smart-weed,  or  other  plants  in  the  potato  field. 
They  hatch  about  a  week  later  into  peculiar  little  grubs 
(b)  that  feed  upon  the  foliage  a  few  weeks.  They 
then  descend  to  the  ground,  where  just  beneath  the  soil 
surface,  or  under  the  rubbish  above  it,  they  change  to 
pupae  (c).  About  ten  days  later  they  emerge  as 
perfect  beetles.  There  are  from  two  to  four  annual 
broods,  the  number  varying  with  the  latitude ;  and  the 
insect  hibernates  in  the  beetle  state. 

Remedies — Spray  with  almost  any  of  the  arsenical 
poisons.  Arsenate  of  lead  has  been  found  best  by  the 
Maine  Experiment  Station.  The  application  should  be 
made  as  soon  as  the  beetles  appear,  in  order  to  kill  off 
the  first  brood,  and  it  must  be  repeated  as  often  during 
the  season  as  is  necessary  to  keep  the  pests  in  check. 

The  FLEA-BEETLE  is  one  of  the  most  troublesome 
insect  pests  affecting  potatoes.  Although  very  small 
it  appears  in  enormous  numbers  and  eats  small  holes 
in  the  surface  of  the  leaves.  They  thus  not  only  injure 
the  tissues  of  the  leaf  directly,  but  the  holes  they  make 


120  SPRAYING    CROPS 

furnish  easy  access  to  the  spores  of  disease-producing 
organisms. 

Remedies — Spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  and 
Bordeaux  mixture  will  prevent  to  a  great  extent  at 
least  the  depredations  of  this  pest.  The  more  thorough 
the  application  the  more  effective  will  it  be. 

FUNGUS     ENEMIES 

There  are  at  least  two  distinct  fungous  diseases 
which  are  called  the  POTATO  ROT  or  POTATO  BLIGHT. 
One  of  these  is  the  LATE  BLIGHT  or  DOWNY  MILDEW, 
due  to  the  fungus  Phytophora  infestans;  and  the  other 
is  the  EARLY  BLIGHT  or  LEAF-SPOT  DISEASE,  due  to 
the  fungus  called  Alter  naria  solani.  They  may  usually 
be  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  leaves  affected  by 
the  former  have  on  their  under  surface  a  white,  velvety 
mould,  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  but  more  readily  seen 
through  the  microscope ;  with  the  Early  Blight  no  such 
mildew  is  present.  With  both,  the  foliage  of  plants 
attacked  becomes  spotted  with  brown,  and  the  spots 
gradually  enlarge,  finally  involving  the  whole  leaf, 
and  then  cause  the  stems  to  wilt  and  wither. 

According  to  Professor  F.  L.  Scribner,  the  life- 
history  of  the  DOWNY  MILDEW  POTATO  ROT  FUNGUS 
may  be  summarized  as  follows :  "The  spores  lighting 
upon  the  leaves  of  the  potato  germinate  in  drops  of  dew 
or  rain,  and  the  product  of  germination — the  zoospores 
— penetrate  to  the  interior  tissues  of  the  plant,  and  after 
growing  for  a  time  through  these  tissues,  the  mycelium 
sends  out,  chiefly  from  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves, 
slender  fruiting  branches,  whereon  are  produced  a  new 
crop  of  spores.  These  may  carry  the  disease  to  the 
other  plants  in  the  field,  or  to  the  other  parts  of  the 
same  plant ;  that  is,  they  may  serve  to  spread  the  dis- 
ease in  the  tops,  which  we  term  blight,  over  the  entire 
field,  or  by  being  washed  into  the  ground  they  may 


THE    POTATO 


121 


reach  the  tubers  and  cause  the  rot.  The  fungus  once 
having  gained  entrance  to  the  tubers,  may  or  may  not 
vegetate  rapidly.  Its  presence,  however,  is  soon  made 
evident  by  a  browning  of  the  flesh  underlying  the  skin, 
and  by  more  or  less  extensive  discoloration  and  de- 
pression of  the  latter."  When  such  affected  tubers 
are  planted,  the  disease  is  very  likely  to  develop  in  the 
plants  from  them. 


(a)  Yield  of  Unsprayed  Plot ;  (b)  of  Sprayed  Plot 

(After  Jones) 

The  EARLY  FLIGHT  appears  early  in  summer  in 
the  shape  of  small  brown,  brittle  spots,  scattered  over 
the  leaf.  Careful  inspection  shows  that  their  upper 
surfaces  are  more  or  less  roughened  by  darker  areas 
rising  above  the  dead  gray  tissue.  The  spots  grad- 
ually enlarge,  and  finally  run  together  to  form  large 
brown  patches,  the  intermediate  tissues  becoming 
yellow  or  sickly  green  in  color.  The  entire  plant 
finally  withers,  and  dies  long  before  the  proper  period, 
the  tubers  being  small — generally  less  than  half  full 
size.  But  the  tubers  do  not  rot  and  are  of  fair  quality. 
This  fungus  has  proven  difficult  to  study  in  the  field, 


122  SPRAYING    CROPS 

the  spores  being  produced  only  in  the  later  stages  of 
the  disease.  It  winters  over  in  the  spore  stage  on 
the  dead  vines. 

Remedies — A  number  of  experiments  have  shown 
that  these  diseases  may  be  prevented  by  spraying  with 
the  Bordeaux  mixture,  provided  the  seed  potatoes  used 
are  free  from  infection.  To  be  sure  of  this,  seed 
should  be  obtained  from  regions  where  blight  and  rot 
do  not  occur  upon  potatoes,  or  from  fields  which  were 
sprayed  the  year  before.  Then  spray  from  two  to  four 
times  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  making  the  first  ap- 
plication when  the  vines  are  about  one-half  grown,  or 
earlier  if  signs  of  the  disease  appear,  and  repeat  the 
application  when  it  is  washed  off — in  about  a  fort- 
night usually.  Add  half  a  pound  of  London  purple  or 
Paris  green  to  each  barrel  of  the  mixture  whenever  the 
Colorado  beetles  threaten  injury.  While  the  best 
results  are  most  likely  to  be  reached  when  the  seed  is 
not  infected,  very  satisfactory  ones  are  obtained  from 
spraying  crops  from  ordinary  seed. 

The  beneficial  effect  of  treatment  with  Bordeaux 
mixture,  as  it  resulted  in  some  experiments  by  Profes- 
sor Jones,  of  Vermont,  is  shown  on  page  121.  The 
treated  vines  yielded  marketable  tubers  at  the  rate  of 
291  bushels  per  acre,  while  those  untreated  yielded 
only  at  the  rate  of  993^  bushels  per  acre. 

Br.ozvn  Rot — Besides  the  two  maladies  already 
discussed,  there  is  a  form  of  blight  and  rot  called 
"brown  rot,"  due  to  bacteria.  This  occurs  on  tomatoes 
and  egg  plants  as  well  as  potatoes,  and  is  worst  in  the 
south.  There  is  no  spotting  of  the  leaves  as  in  the 
preceding  blight,  but  the  first  symptom  is  a  sudden 
wilting  of  the  entire  top,  which  is  soon  followed  by 
the  shriveling  and  blackening  of  the  leaves  and  stems. 
The  disease  passes  from  the  stem  to  the  tubers,  causing 
a  browning  of  the  interior,  which  is  soon  followed  by 


THE    POTATO  123 

soft  rot.  The  beetles  or  other  insects  feeding  upon 
the  diseased  plants  carry  the  germs  to  the  healthy  ones. 
The  germs  also  live  over  in  the  soil. 

Remedies — Avoid  land  which  has  recently  borne 
diseased  potatoes,  tomatoes  or  egg  plants.  If  the 
disease  occurs,  all  wilting  vines  should  be  removed  and 
destroyed  at  once  and  the  tubers,  if  stored,  should  be 
kept  cool  and  dry.  The  chief  remedial  measure  con- 
sists in  thorough  spraying  with  arsenites,  or  Bordeaux 
mixture  and  arsenites,  to  keep  the  vines  free  from  the 
insects  which  carry  the  germs. 


THE  CABBAGE 


INSECT     ENEMIES     OF     THE     LEAVES 

The  transformations  of  the  IMPORTED  CARP, AGE- 
WORM — the  most  destructive  insect  affecting  cabbage 
— are  illustrated  in  the  picture  on  page  125.  The  adult 
is  a  common  white  butterfly,  which  deposits,  singly  or 
in  clusters  of  two  or  three  each,  small,  yellowish-white 
eggs  upon  the  cabbage.  The  eggs  soon  hatch  into 
little  green  larvae  that  feed  upon  the  leaves.  In  about 
two  weeks  they  become  full-grown  (a),  when  they 
desert  the  cabbage  plants,  and  finding  some  suitable 
shelter — beneath  a  board  or  under  a  coping  of  a  fence 
— change  to  chrysalids  (b).  They  remain  in  this  con- 
dition about  ten  days,  when  they  emerge  as  butterflies, 
to  lay  eggs  for  another  brood  of  worms.  The  winter 
is  passed  in  the  chrysalis  state. 

Remedies — Pyrethrum  (insect-powder  or  buhach), 
hot  water  and  kerosene  either  in  mechanical  mixture  or 
emulsion,  are  the  best  remedies.  The  insect-powder 
may  be  applied  as  a  dry  powder  or  be  mixed  with 
water,  in  the  proportion  of  I  ounce  to  4  or  5 
gallons  of  water,  and  sprayed  upon  the  plants.  Dr 
Riley  states  that  "every  worm  visible  upon  the  cab- 
bages may  be  killed  by  the  use  of  hot  water  at  the  tem- 
perature of  130  degrees  Fahrenheit.  The  water  may 
be  boiling  hot  when  put  in  the  watering-can,  but  it 
will  not  be  too  hot  when  it  reaches  the  cabbage  leaves." 
Kerosene  in  mechanical  mixture  or  emulsion  can 
advantageously  be  used  when  the  plants  are  young, 
though  there  would  appear  to  be  danger  of  tainting  the 
heads  if  applied  to  the  fully  developed  plants.  Which- 
ever method  of  treatment  is  adopted,  it  should  be 


THE    CABBAGE 


125 


carried  into  practice  at  frequent  intervals,  thus  keeping 
the  worms  well  in  check.  If  the  plants  are  treated  with 
insect-powder  once  a  week  during  the  time  the  worms 
are  present,  they  will  cause  little  or  no  trouble. 

There  are  several  other  caterpillars  affecting  cab- 
bage— especially  the  CABBAGE  PLUSIA  and  the  ZEBRA 
CATERPILLAR — which  sometimes  necessitate  a  spray- 
ing with  kerosene  emulsion  or  insect-powder. 

The  CABBAGE  APHIS  is  a  small,  greenish  insect, 
generally  covered  with  a  whitish,  mealy  coating,  that 


Imported  Cabbage=worm 

a,  larva;  6,  chrysalis;  c,  female  butterfly.    (After  Riley) 

occurs  in  great  numbers  on  the  leaves  and  in  the 
heads  of  cabbage.  During  the  summer  months  it  re- 
produces viviparously,  but  in  autumn  true  males  and 
females  are  developed,  eggs  being  deposited  by  the 
latter  upon  the  cabbage  leaves. 

Remedy — Kerosene  in  mechanical  mixture  or 
emulsion  and  fish-oil  soap  are  the  most  effective  liquid 
insecticides  that  can  be  used  against  this  insect. 

Young  cabbages  are  often  attacked  by  flea-beetles, 
especially  the  WAVY-STRIPED  FLEA-BEETLE.  It  is  a 
small,  shining  black  beetle,  i-io  inch  long,  with  a 


126  SPRAYING    CROPS 

broad,  yellow,  wavy  stripe  on  each  wing-cover  It 
feeds  upon  the  surface  of  the  leaf,  gnawing  out  little 
pits.  The  females  deposit  minute  whitish  eggs  upon 
the  roots  of  cruciferous  plants,  such  as  radish,  cabbage, 
turnip,  etc,  and  the  larvae  feed  upon  these  roots, 
sometimes  doing  serious  damage.  The  full-grown 
larva  is  about  l/4  inch  long,  with  a  yellowish-white 
body,  and  brown  head. 

Remedies — Spray  the  plants  with  a  strong  tobacco 
decoction,  or  dust  on  powdered  tobacco. 

In  the  southern  states  the  HARLEQUIN  CABBAGE- 
BUG  is  a  very  troublesome  pest.  It  feeds  upon  a 
variety  of  cruciferous  plants,  such  as  cabbage,  radish, 
mustard,  and  turnip;  and  passes  the  winter  in  the 
adult  state.  Early  in  spring  eggs  are  deposited  upon 
mustard  or  radish  plants,  upon  which  the  resulting 
bugs  develop.  The  second  brood  attacks  the  cabbage 
and  the  insects  continue  to  develop  upon  this  crop  until 
autumn.  According  to  Mr  Howard  Evarts  Weed, 
"there  is  but  one  efficient  remedy  for  this  insect,  which 
is,  to  destroy  the  brood  which  lives  over  winter,  when 
they  congregate  upon  the  mustard  or  radish  plants. 
Here  they  may  be  destroyed  very  easily  by  the  applica- 
tion of  kerosene  (not  emulsified)  by  means  of  a  hand 
force-pump  or  common  watering  bucket.  If  the 
insects  are  thus  destroyed  early  in  the-  season,  it  will 
almost  wholly  prevent  injury  later.  The  insects  fly 
but  little,  and  are  thus  not  apt  to  come  from  a  neigh- 
boring field."  Those  bugs  or  eggs  which  may  be 
seen  on  cabbage  should  be  picked  off  and  destroyed. 

ASPARAGUS 

The  ASPARAGUS  RUST  is  a  very  destructive  fun- 
gous disease  in  some  regions.  The  damage  it  does 
varies  greatly  from  year  to  year.  Experiments  in 


ASPARAGUS 


127 


New  York,  Delaware  and  other  states  show  that  its 
injuries  may  be  prevented  to  a  great  extent  by  spray- 
ing with  Bordeaux  mixture  to  which  rosin  soap  has 
been  added  to  make  it  adhere  better.  Professor  F.  D. 
Chester's  recommendations  are  as  follows :  "Dissolve 
2  pounds  of  the  rosin  soap  in  the  necessary  quantity 
of  water  and  add  to  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  which  is 
prepared  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  first  application 
in  this  section  should  be  made  about  the  middle  of 
July  and  repeated  about  two  weeks  later.  The  eco- 


Harlequin  Cabbage  bug 

a,  b%  nymphs;  c,  eggs;  /",  adult;  gt  adult  with  wings  extended — all  natural  size; 
d  eggs,  side  view ;  e,  eggs,  view  from  above— d,  e,  enlarged.    (After  Riley) 

nomical  spraying  of  asparagus  demands  a  specially 
devised  spraying  outfit,  and  should  consist  of  a  cart 
with  wheels  sufficiently  high  so  that  the  axles  will 
brush  only  the  tops  of  the  plants.  On  this  cart  is 
mounted  a  barrel  and  a  pump,  the  latter  being  con- 
nected with  a  length  of  pipe  running  along  the  back 
of  the  cart  and  parallel  to  the  axles.  To  this  horizon- 
tal pipe  are  attached  three  tees  and  short  nipples,  to 
which  are  attached  the  nozzles.  By  driving  across  a 
field  in  the  direction  of  the  rows  a  rather  broad  strip 
of  plants  can  be  sprayed  as  rapidly  as  it  takes  a  horse 
to  slowly  pace  the  ground. 


128  SPRAYING    CROPS 

"The  advisability  of  spraying  asparagus  will 
depend  on  circumstances.  If  the  rust  has  been  serious 
the  year  before,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  it  will  make 
its  appearance  on  the*following  season,  and  it  would 
be  advisable  to  forestall  its  appearance  by  spraying. 
It  will  not  do  to  wait  until  it  shows  itself  before 
spraying,  as  it  is  then  too  late." 


GRAIN    CROPS 


INSECT      ENEMIES 


The  CHINCH  BUG  has  long  been  recognized  as 
one  of  the  arch-enemies  of  American  agriculture.  The 
adult  (h)  is  a  small  blackish  insect,  slightly  less  than 


Chinch  Bug 

a,  1),  eggs;  <,,  e,f,  young;  £-,  nymph  or  pupa;  h,  adult.     Magnified 
(After  Riley) 

1-5  inch  long,  with  the  legs  dark  yellow,  and  their 
tips  black.  The  females  deposit  eggs  about  the  roots 
of  grass  and  grain.  From  these  hatch  young  bugs 
(c)  that  do  not  differ  in  general  form  from  the  adults. 
They  suck  the  sap  from  various  plants  of  the  grass 
family,  gradually  increasing  in  size,  and  moulting  at 
intervals.  In  a  few  weeks  they  become  nearly  full- 
grown,  but  instead  of  changing  to  a  quiet  chrysalis 
state,  they  simply  moult  again  and  continue  feeding 
as  before.  In  these  early  stages,  which  correspond  to 


I3O  SPRAYING     CROPS 

the  larva  and  chrysalis,  they  are  called  nymphs.  The 
older  nymphs  (g)  are  nearly  as  large  as  the  full- 
grown  bugs,  differing  mainly  in  the  absence  of  wings. 
In  about  a  week  they  again  moult  and  come  forth  as 
adult  bugs. 

Remedies — Chinch  bugs  are  easily  killed  by 
kerosene,  and  by  means  of  improved  spraying 
machines  this  substance  can  be  used  against  them  to 
good  advantage.  The  best  time  to  choose  in  which 
to  kill  them  is  when  they  are  migrating  from  field 
to  field. 


Variegated  Cut  worm 

a,  larva;  b,  moth.     (After  Kilcyj 

Corn,  oats,  and  other  field  and  garden  crops 
suffer  greatly  from  the  attacks  of  CUT-WORMS,  of 
which  there  are  many  species.  They  are  larvae  of 
medium-sized,  night-flying  moths,  and  are  thick, 
naked  worms  that  curl  up  when  disturbed.  Most  of 
them  feed  upon  grass  or  clover  when  young,  becom- 
ing about  half  grown  by  winter  time,  when  they  seek 
the  shelter  of  some  log  or  stone,  or  burrow  into  the 
soil.  Here  they  hibernate,  and  in  spring  come  forth 


GRAIN    CROPS  131 

in  search  of  food.  They  now  attack  a  variety  of 
young  plants,  biting  off  the  stems  and  feeding  upon 
the  leaves.  They  become  full-grown  in  spring  or  in 
early  summer,  and  pupate  beneath  the  soil  surface, 
and  three  or  four  weeks  later  emerge  as  moths.  The 
larva  (a)  and  moth  (b)  of  the  Variegated  Cut- 
worm (A gratis  saiicia)  are  represented,  natural  size, 
on  page  130.  Some  species  have  two  or  more  broods 
each  season,  while  others  have  but  one.  Cut-worms 
are  especially  likely  to  do  damage  in  fields  and  gardens 
close  to  grass-lands,  and  to  crops  immediately  fol- 
lowing grass. 

Remedies — Spray  a  small  plat  of  clover  with  an 
arsenical  poison  and  then  cut  it  late  in  the  afternoon 
and  strew  in  bunches  over  the  field  to  be  protected. 
The  worms  prowling  about  at  night  eat  of  the 
poisonous  baits  and  are  killed. 

The  ARMY-WORM  hatches  from  eggs  laid  by  a 
handsome  brown  moth  between  the  sheaths  of  grass 
blades.  The  larvae  are  at  first  green,  but  later  be- 
come ornamented  with  longitudinal  stripes  of  yellow, 
gray,  and  black.  They  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  grass, 
wheat,  oats,  rye,  etc,  and  become  full-grown  in  about 
a  month.  Occasionally  they  become  so  numerous  that 
they  exhaust  their  food  supplies,  and  then  are  forced 
to  seek  other  feeding  grounds.  At  such  times  the 
"armies"  appear,  and  moving  in  solid  masses  sweep 
all  grasses  and  cereals  before  them.  The  larvae 
pupate  in  earthen  cells,  emerging  a  fortnight  later 
as  moths. 

Remedies — One  of  the  most  promising  methods 
of  combating  this  insect  is  that  of  thoroughly  spray- 
ing strips  of  grass  or  other  crops  in  front  of  the 
advancing  host  with  mixtures  of  arsenate  of  lead  and 
water. 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS 


INSECT     ENEMIES 

Our  various  domestic  animals  frequently  suffer 
from  the  attacks  of  LICE.  Three  of  the  commoner 
species  affecting  horses  and  cattle  are  shown  below. 
Animals  affected  by  them  lose  flesh  and  are  weak- 
ened. The  lice  generally  deposit  their  eggs  or  "nits" 
on  the  hairs. 

Remedy — The  best  method  of  destroying  lice  is 
to  spray  or  wash  the  infested  aninials  with  a  well- 
prepared  kerosene  emulsion.  If  this  is  well  made  it 


Lice 

a,  l>,  sucking  ox-lice;  c,  biting  horsc-loute.     Magnified.     (After  Osborn) 

can  be  applied  to  cattle  and  horses,  hogs  and  sheep, 
with  no  danger  of  injury  to  them,  while  it  will  destroy 
all  the  lice  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  Professor 
C.  P.  Gillette,  who  first  gave  this  method  a  thorough 
trial,  recommends  applying  it  with  a  force-pump  and 
spray  nozzle,  rubbing  it  in  thoroughly  with  the 
finger  tips  at  the  same  time.  It  kills  the  lice,  and 
leaves  the  hair  of  the  animal  in  good  condition.  The 
lice  may  also  be  destroyed  by  treating  with  a  strong 
tobacco  decoction — a  .pound  of  tobacco  being  boiled 


DOMESTIC     ANIMALS  133 

in  two  gallons  of  water — or  a  wash  of  carbolic-acid 
soap.     But  the  first-named  remedy  is  best.     The  stalls 
and   woodwork   of  the   quarters   occupied  by  the   in 
fcsted   animals   should   also   be   treated. 

The  HORN  FLY  is  a  recently  imported  insect  that 
often  annoys  cattle  by  sucking  their  blood  and  light- 
ing upon  their  horns.  The  eggs  are  deposited  in 
freshly  dropped  cow-du-ng,  in  which  the  larvae 


Horn  Fly  Cow=horn 

magnified  with  hand  of  resting  flies,  reduced 

(From  Insect  Life} 

develop,  and  pupate  in  the  soil  beneath.  There  are 
four  or  five  broods  each  season.  During  hot  weather 
the  transformations  of  the  insect — from  egg  to 
imago — may  be  completed  within  two  weeks. 

Remedies — Spray  cattle  twice  a  week,  either 
with  kerosene  emulsion,  to  which  a  little  tobacco  de- 
coction has  been  added,  or  fish-oil,  to  which  a  little 
carbolic  acid  has  been  added.  Or  rub  on  by  means 
of  a  brush  or  cloth.  One  stockman  has  had  good 
success  by  simply  dampening  the  tips  of  the  hairs  with 
a  rag  dipped  in  crude  petroleum. 


Unsprayed 

Pear  Leaf=blight  Experiment— See  page  78 
(After  Galloway) 


i: 


In  d  e  x 


Aphides 


PAGE 


Apple,   The    57 

aphis     65 

curculio     62 

flea-beetle     64 

leaf-crumpler 99 

leaf-roller     99 

powdery   mildew 

rot    

scab     

skcletonizer    .... 

worm     2 

Army-worm    131 

Arscnate  of  lead 12 


104 


.67,  68 


PAGE 


1 1 6  Currant,   The    90 

aphis    92 

bug    91 

leaf-hopper     90 

worm     90 

Cut- worms     130 

Domestic    animals    132 


Downy    mildew    of 
potato 


grapes. 


7 

I2O 


67 [Elm    leaf-beetle    in 

Eye-spotted  bud-moth    66 


100 


senite    of  lime 14  Flowers 


Fall    web-worm 
Feeding-habits    of 
Fish-oil    soap     .  .  . 


Arsenites  and  copper  carbonate.  .   30 

Asparagus    rust     126 

Bag- worm     108 

Basket-worm    .  ..108 


..   67 

•  •    73 

•  •    95 

.  .     20 


no 
,  6 
,  18 
•  "5 


Gooseberry, 
mildew    . 


Black-spot     

peach  aphis    

rot      

Bordeaux   mixture 

and    arsenites 

Brown-rot   of   stone   fruits.  ...  70,   ._ 

grapes     gCJIIellebore 

potato    i22,IIorn-fly 

Bud-moth      

Cabbage,   The 

aphis     

plusia    

worm     .  


rmaldehyde-glycerine    mixture.  28 

rour-lincd    leaf-bug     91 

Fruit-bark     borer 69 

Fungicides 


The... 


90 

r     •  93 

uram-crops    129 

•^e,    The 95 

flea-beetle     95 

Harlequin    cabbage-bug    126 

14 

133 


66  Hyposulphite    of    soda 27 


124 
125 


Canker-worm    5,   63 

Carbonate    of    copper 26 


Leaf-crumpler 
skeletonizer 


Cherry,    The 

aphis    80 

leaf-blight     81 

Chinch-bug     129  Lice 

Codling-moth    2,    60,  76  Lichens 

Colorado    potato-beetle 119  Lime-spray 

Combining    insecticides    and    fun-        Liver   of  sulphur. 

gicidcs 28  London   purple 

Cost   of   spraying 43  Lye    solution 

Copper  carbonate   26 

sulphate 27 

Cost    of    spraying    materials 3OJNursery     stock 

Crude  petroleum    1 6' Oyster-shell     bark-louse. 


Imported     cabbage-worm 124 

Insecticides    10 

14 


Insect-powder    

Insects,    feeding-habits   of 6 

Kerosene    

Kerosene   emulsion    

Kerowater    sprays 


14 
15 
15 
99 
,  100 
132 
79 
19 
27 

12 


Maple  bark-louse    107 

Nozzles     38 

99 
.-.    59 


136 


INDEX 


PAGE  I  PAGE 

Parasitic   fungi,   development  of.      7  Red-spider      116 

Paris   green loiResin   soap     18 

Peach    *.  .  .  .    73 !  Rose   leaf -hopper    115 

aphis      73)   slug     114 

leaf-curl    74'San  Jose  scale 57,  73,  99 

rot    75  Scheele's    green    13 

Pear,    The 76  Shade  trees    107 


slug    76,  81 

leaf-blight     77,   102 


psylla    77 

scab     78 

Pernicious   scale 57 

Petroleum,    crude 16 

Philosophy   of    spraying i 

Plum,     The 69 

curculio    ....4,   62,   69,    73,    76,  80 

gouger     69 

leaf-blight     102,   104 

rot    

Potassium  sulphide 

Potato,    The    

beetle    

brown-rot     

early  blight    120 

late  blight    120 

rot      1 20 

Powdery    mildew    102 


Shot-hole    fungus     71 

Soda  hyposulphite    27 

Spraying   against   insects i 

and   the    weather 49 


apparatus    32 

cost    of     43 

calendar    50 

materials,    cost    of 30 

nozzles 38 

philosophy    of     i 

precautions     53 

prejudice    against     31 

profits  of    49 

trees    in    blossom 49 


Prejudice  against   spraying.  .  .  . 

Profits   in   spraying 

Pruning    trees     

Pyrethrum 


70 

-7 

1 9 

19  Strawberry,    The.. 

22\     leaf-blight     

leaf-beetles     

leaf-roller     : 

root-worms      

slug     

Sulphate  of   copper. 


45  Tent  caterpillar 


Quince,   The    79  Whale-oil   soap 


Raspberry,  The   .  .  . 

anthracnose      

cane-rust     

slug    

Red-legged  flea-beetle 


97 


85 
87 
87 

8s 
86 

85 

64 
19 

125 

T9 
White-marked    tussock-moth    ....  109 


Tobacco  decoction    

Wavy-striped   flea-beetle 


Woolly    aphis 60 

bark-louse     107 

Zebra    caterpillar    125 


ADVERTISEMENTS 

"One  Spraying  Enough" 

"DISPARENE" 

THE    MOST     POWERFUL     KNOWN    INSECTICIDE 

NEVER    INJURES    FOLIAGE 

Sticks  like  Paint  through  Season- 


"DISPARENE,"  THE  ONLY  INSECTICIDE 
THAT  WILL  DESTROY  BOTH  BROODS  OF  THE 
CODLING  MOTH,  kills  all  leaf-eating  insects— canker- 
worm,  tussock  moth,  elm  leaf  beetle,  cranberry  fire- 
worm,  cut  worms,  brown-tail  moth,  gypsy  moth,  potato 
bug  and  similar  insects. 

"DISPARENE"  is  safer  than  any  other  insecti- 
cide; kills  the  insects,  does  not  burn  the  leaves,  and 
sticks  like  paint  throughout  the  season,  and  is  the  only 
arsenical  insecticide  known  that  can  be  safely  used  at 
any  strength  on  the  most  delicate  foliage. 

Prof.  E.  D.  Sanderson,  Entomologist  of  the  Delaware 
Experiment  Station,  conducted  in  1901  the  most  careful  and 
exhaustive  series  of  experiments  ever  made  against  the  codling 
moth.  As  usual,  "  DISPARENE  "  gave  the  best  results  of  any 
insecticide  used.  He  writes:  "I  have  used  *  DISPARENE' 
against  the  codling  moth  this  year.  It  proved  to  be  very  much 
superior  to  Paris  Green,  and  destroyed  a  larger  percentage  of 
codling  moth  larvae  than  has  ever  been  done  in  any  similar, 
carefully  conducted  experiment.  One  thing  which  seems  to  me 
to  make  '  DISPARENE  '  of  special  value  is  its  adhesive  quali- 
ties— in  spite  of  very  heavy  rains  it  remained  on  the  trees  all 
summer.  The  results  which  we  have  secured  I  know  will  be 
very  gratifying  to  you,  as  they  have  been  to  me  quite  surprising." 


BOWKER  INSECTICIDE  CO., 

43  Chatham  Street,  Boston,  Mass. 

Send  for  our  48-page  Catalogue  with  illustrations  from  photographs 
af  sprayed  crops  and  descriptions  of  28  hinds  of  spraying  materials, 
pnnips,  etc. 


ADVERTISEMENTS 


SPRAYING  PREVENTS  BLIGHT 

ATO  BUGS 

SAVE  YOUR  POTATO, 
(TOMATO, CABBAGE, 
tJOMOD 

5RAPE.  COTTON  AND 
OTHER  CROPS  . 

.  PREVENT  BLWHt 
i  DISEASES  AND  ROT. 
..WORMS.  MOTHS,ME(ICAN 
LWEEVILS.ETC. 

A&PINWACL    Mf^^SO.,  JACKSON, Miew. 


A  SEVERE  AND  PRACTICAL  TEST 

Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  July  19,  1!K«. 

Gentlemen:  It  gives  me  pleasure  to  report  that  your  Potato 
Sprayer  is  a  great  success.  It  docs  its  work  efficiently  and  quickly. 
/  can  ntnu  perform  the  work  of  spravin%  potatoes  in  one-quarter  of  the 
time  formerly  required,  and  one  man  and  a  horse  will  do  the  work 
which  formerly  required  the  services  of  three  men  and  a  horse. 
I  shall  hereafter  recommend  your  sprayer  to  those  who  inquire  of 
me  where  a  good  machine  can  be  secured. 

Yours  very  truly,  L.  A.  CLINTON, 
Assistant  Agriculturist,  Cornell  University  Agr'l  Experiment  Sta. 


LONDON   PVBPLE 

To  obtain  sorxn,  MANOSOMK  KRTIT  spray 
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Effective  Insecticide 

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"WORMS,  CANKKR  WORMS,  Coin, ING  MOTH, 
CuuruMo,  (>tc.,  for  more  than  a 

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STANDARD     BOOKS. 

Herbert's  Hints  to  Horse  Keepers. 

By  the  late  HENRY  WU.LIAM  HERBERT  (Frank  Forester). 
This  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  popular  works  on  the  horse 
prepared  in  this  country.  A  complete  manual  for  horsemen, 
embracing :  How  to  breed  a  horse ;  .how  to  buy  a  horse ;  how 
to  break  a  horse ;  how  to  use  a  horse ;  how  to  feed  a  horse ; 
how  to  physic  a  horse  (allopathy  or  homeopathy)  ;  how  to 
groom  a  horse ;  how  to  drive  a  horse ;  how  to  ride  a  horse, 
etc.  Beautifully  illustrated.  425  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Cloth $1.50 

Diseases  of  Horses  and  Cattle. 

By  DR.  D.  MC!NTOSH,  V.  S.,  professor  of  veterinary 
science  in  the  university  of  Illinois.  Written  expressly  for  the 
farmer,  stockman  and  veterinary  student.  A  new  work  on 
the  treatment  of  animal  diseases,  according  to  the  modern 
status  of  veterinary  science,  has  become  a  necessity.  Such  an 
one  is  this  volume  of  over  400  pages,  written  by  one  of  the 
most  eminent  veterinarians  of  our  country.  Illustrated.  426 
pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $i-75 

The  Ice  Crop. 

By  THERON  L.  HILES.  How  to  harvest,  ship  and  use  ice. 
A  complete,  practical  treatise  for  farmers,  dairymen,  ice 
dealers,  produce  shippers,  meat  packers,  cold  storers,  and  all 
interested  in  icehouses,  cold  storage,  and  the  handling  or  use 
,of  ice  in  any  way.  Including  many  recipes  for  iced  dishes  and 
beverages.  The  book  is  illustrated  by  cuts  of  the  tools  and 
machinery  used  in  cutting  and  storing  ice,  and  the  different 
forms  of  icehouses  and  cold  storage  buildings.  Illustrated. 
122  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  .  .  $1.00 

The  Secrets  of  Health,  or  How  Not  to  Be  Sick,  and 
'    Hoiv  to  Get  Well  from  Sickness. 

By  S.  H.  PLATT,  A.  M.,  M.  D.,  late  member  of  the  Connect- 
icut Eclectic  Medical  Society,  the  National  Eclectic  Medical 
Association,  and  honorary  member  of  the  National  Bacterio- 
logical Society  of  America ;  our  medical  editor  and  author  of 
"Talks  With  Our  Doctor''  and  "Our  Health  Adviser."  Nearly 
600  pages.  An  index  of  20  pages,,  so  that  any  topic  may  be 
instantly  consulted.  A  new  departure  in  medical  knowledge 
for  the  people — the  latest  progress,  secrets  and  practices  of  all 
schools  of  healing  made  available  for  the  common  people — 
health  without  medicine,  nature  without  humbug,  common 
sense  without  folly,  science  without  fraud.  8l  illustrations. 
576  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  .  .  $1.50 


STANDARD    BOOKS. 

Hunter  and  Trapper. 

By  HALSEY  THRASHER,  an  old  and  experienced  sportsman. 
The  best  modes  of  hunting  and  trapping  are  fully  explained, 
and  foxes,  deer,  bears,  etc.,  fall  into  his  traps  readily  by  fol- 
lowing his  directions.  Illustrated.  92  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Cloth $0.50 

Batty's  Practical  Taxidermy  and  Home  Decoration. 

By  JOSEPH  H.  BATTY,  taxidermist  for  the  government 
surveys  and  many  colleges  and  museums  in  the  United  States. 
An  entirely  new  and  complete  as  well  as  authentic  work  on 
taxidermy — giving  in  detail  full  directions  for  collecting 
and  mounting  animals,  birds,  reptiles,  fish,  insects,  and 
general  objects  of  natural  history.  125  illustrations.  204 
pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $1.00 

Hemp. 

By  S.  S.  BOYCE.  A  practical  treatise  on  the  culture  of 
hemp  for  seed  and  fiber,  with  a  sketch  of  the  history  and 
nature  of  the  hemp  plant.  The  various  chapters  are  devoted 
to  the  soil  and  climate  adapted  to  the  culture  of  hemp  for 
seed  and  for  fiber,  irrigating,  harvesting,  retting  and  machin- 
ery for  handling  hemp.  Illustrated.  112  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Cloth. $0.50 

Alfalfa. 

By  F.  D.  COBURN.  Its  growth,  uses  and  feeding  value. 
The  fact  that  alfalfa  thrives  in  almost  any  soil;  that  without 
reseeding,  it  goes  on  yielding  two,  three,  four  and  sometimes 
five  cuttings  annually  for  five,  ten,  or  perhaps  100  years ;  and 
that  either  green  or  cured  it  is  one  of  the  most  nutritious 
forage  plants  known,  makes  reliable  information  upon  its  pro- 
duction and  uses  of  unusual  interest.  Such  information  is 
given  in  this  volume  for  every  part  of  America,  by  the  highest 
authority.  Illustrated.  164  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  $0.50 

Talks  on  Manure. 

By  JOSEPH  HARRIS,  M.  S.  A  series  of  familiar  and 
practical  talks  between  the  author  and  the  deacon,  the  doctor, 
and  other  neighbors,  on  the  whole  subject  of  manures  and 
fertilizers;  including  a  chapter  especially  written  for  it 
by  Sir  John  Bennet  Lawes  of  Rothamsted,  England.  366 
pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth f  $1.50 


STANDARD     BOOKS. 

Practical  Forestry. 

By  ANDREW  S.  FULLER.  A  treatise  on  the  propagation, 
planting  and  cultivation,  with  descriptions  and  the  botanical 
and  popular  names  of  all  the  indigenous  trees  of  the  United 
States,  and  notes  on  a  large  number  of  the  most  valuable 
exotic  species.  Illustrated.  300  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Cloth $1.50 

Irrigation  for  the  Farm,  Garden  and  Orchard. 

By  HENRY  STEWART.  This  work  is  offered  to  those 
American  farmers  and  other  cultivators  of  the  soil  who,  from 
painful  experience,  can  readily  appreciate  the  losses  which 
result  from  the  scarcity  of  water  at  critical  periods.  Fully 
illustrated.  276  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  $i.oc 

Irrigation  Farming. 

By  LUTE  WILCOX.  A  handbook  for  the  practical  applica- 
tion of  water  in  the  production  of  crops.  A  complete  treatise 
on  water  supply,  canal  construction,  reservoirs  and  ponds, 
pipes  for  irrigation  purposes,  flumes  and  their  structure, 
methods  of  applying  water,  irrigation  of  field  crops,  the 
garden,  the  orchard  and  vineyard,  windmills  and  pumps, 
appliances  and  contrivances.  New  edition,  revised,  enlarged 
and  rewritten.  Pro/usely  illustrated.  Over  500  pages.  5x7 
inches.  Cloth. $2.00 

Ginseng,  Its  Cultivation.  Harvesting,  Marketing  and 
Market  Value. 

By  MAURICE  G.  KAINS,  with  a  short  account  of  its  history 
and  botany.  It  discusses  in  a  practical  way  how  to  begin  with 
either  seed  or  roots,  soil,  climate  and  location,  preparation, 
planting  and  maintenance  of  the  beds,  artificial  propagation, 
manures,  enemies,  selection  for  market  aixl  for  improvement, 
preparation  for  sale,  and  .the  profits  that  may  be  expected. 
This  booklet  is  concisely  written,  well  and  profusely  illus- 
trated, and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  all  who  expect  to  grow 
this  drug  to  supply  the  export  trade,  and  to  add  a  new  and 
profitable  industry  to  their  farms  and  gardens,  without  inter- 
fering with  the  regular  work.  New  edition.  Revised  and  en 
larged.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  .  $0.50 

Truck  Farming  at  the  South. 

By  A.  OEMLER.  A  work  giving  the  experience  of  a  suc- 
cessful grower  of  vegetables  or  "garden  truck"  for  northern 
markets.  Essential  to  anyone  who  contemplates  entering  this 
profitable  field  of  agriculture.  Illustrated.  274  pages.  5x7 

inches.      Cloth. $1.00 

4 


STANDARD    BOOKS. 

Henderson's  Practical  Floriculture. 

By  PETER  HENDERSON.  A  guide  to  the  successful  propaga- 
tion and  cultivation  of  florists'  plants.  The  work  is  not  one 
for  florists  and  gardeners  only,  but  the  amateur's  wants  are 
constantly  kept  in  mind,  and  we  have  a  very  complete  treatise 
on  the  cultivation  of  flowers  under  glass,  or  in  the  open  air, 
suited  to  those  who  grow  flowers  for  pleasure  as  well  as  those 
who  make  them  a  matter  of  trade.  New  and  enlarged  edition. 
Beautifully  illustrated.  325  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  $1.50 

Mushrooms.    How  to  Grow  Them. 

By  WILLIAM  FALCONER.  This  is  the  most  practical  work 
on  the  subject  ever  written,  and  the  only  book  on  growing 
mushrooms  published  in  America.  The  author  describes  how 
he  grows  mushrooms,  and  how  they  are  grown  for  profit  by 
the  leading  market  gardeners,  and  for  home  use  by  the  most 
successful  private  growers.  Engravings  drawn  from  nature 
expressly  for  this  work.  170  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  $1.00 

Play  and  Profit  in  My  Garden. 

By  E.  P.  ROE.  The  author  takes  us  to  his  garden  on  the 
rocky  hillsides  in  the  vicinity  of  West  Point,  and  shows  us 
how  out  of  it,  after  four  years'  experience,  he  evoked  a  profit 
of  $1000,  and  this  while  carrying  on  pastoral  and  literary 
labor.  It  is  very  rarely  that  so  much  literary  taste  and  skill 
are  mated  to  so  much  agricultural  experience  and  good  sense. 
Illustrated.  350  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  $1.00 

Fumigation  Methods. 

By  WILLIS  G.  JOHNSON.  A  timely  up-to-date  book  on 
the  practical  application  of  the  new  methods  for  destroying 
insects  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  and  carbon  bisulphid,  the 
most  powerful  insecticides  ever  discovered.  It  is  an  indispen- 
sable book  for  farmers,  fruit  growers,  nurserymen,  gardeners, 
florists,  millers,  grain  dealers,  transportation  companies,  col- 
lege and  experiment  station  workers,  etc.  Illustrated.  313 
pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $1.00 

Fungi  and  Fungicides. 

By  PROF.  CLARENCE  M.  WEED.  A  practical  manual  con- 
cerning the  fungous  diseases  of  cultivated  plants  and  the 
means  of  preventing  their  ravages.  The  author  has  endeav- 
ored to  give  such  a  concise  account  of  the  most  important 
facts  relating  to  these  as  will  enable  the  cultivator  to  combat 
them  intelligently.  90  illustrations.  222  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Paper,  50  cents;  cloth $1.00 


STANDARD    BOOKS. 

Insects  and  Insecticides. 

By  CLARENCE  M.  WEED,  D.  Sc.,  professor  of  entomology 
and  zoology,  New  Hampshire  college  of  agriculture.  A  practi- 
cal manual  concerning  noxious  insects,  and  methods  of 
preventing  their  injuries.  Many  illustrations.  334  pages. 
5x7  inches.  Cloth $1.50 

How  Crops  Grow. 

By  PROF.  SAMUEL  W.  JOHNSON  of  Yale  college.  New  and 
revised  edition.  A  treatise  on  the  chemical  composition, 
structure  and  life  of  the  plant.  This  book  is  a  guide  to  the 
knowledge  of  agricultural  plants,  their  composition,  their 
structure  and  modes  of  development  and  growth ;  of  the  com- 
plex organization  of  plants,  and  the  use  of  the  parts;  the 
germination  of  seeds,  and  the  food  of  plants  obtained  both 
from  the  air  and  the  soil.  The  book  is  indispensable  to  all 
real  students  of  agriculture.  With  numerous  illustrations  and 
tables  of  analysis.  416  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  $1.5° 

Tobacco  Leaf. 

By  J.  B.  KILLEBREW  and  HERBERT  MYRICK.  Its  Culture 
and  Cure,  Marketing  and  Manufacture.  A  practical  handbook 
on  the  most  approved  methods  in  growing,  harvesting,  curing, 
packing  and  selling  tobacco,  with  an  account  of  the  opera- 
tions in  every  department  of  tobacco  manufacture.  The 
contents  of  this  book  are  based  on  actual  experiments  in  field, 
curing  barn,  packing  house,  factory  and  laboratory.  It  is  the 
only  work  of  the  kind  in  existence,  and  is  destined  to  be  the 
standard* practical  and  scientific  authority  on  the  whole  subject 
of  tobacco  for  many  years.  506  pages  and  150  original  en- 
gravings. 5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .....  $2.00 

Cob  urn's  Swine  Husbandry. 

By  F.  D.  COBURN.  New,  revised  and  enlarged  edition. 
The  breeding,  rearing  and  management  of  swine,  and  the 
prevention  and  treatment  of  their  diseases.  It  is  the  fullest 
and  freshest  compendium  relating  to  swine  breeding  yet 
offered.  Illustrated.  312  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  $1.50 

Home  Pork  Making. 

The  art  of  raising  and  curing  pork  on  the  farm.  By 
A.  W.  FULTON.  A  complete  guide  for  the  farmer,  the  country 
butcher  and  the  suburban  dweller,  in  all  that  pertains  to  hog 
slaughtering,  curing,  preserving  and  storing  pork  product — 
from  scalding  vat  to  kitchen  table  and  dining  room.  Illus- 
trated. 125  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  ,  .  ,  $0.50 

6 


GENERAL  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  .CALIFORNIA— BERKELEY 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or  on  the 

date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


ENTOMOLOGY  LIBRARY 


LD  21-100m-l,'54(1887sl6)476 


iERKELEY  LIBRARIf 


C037S34311 


256406 

V/4, 


